Impacts Of The Economic Downturn On Health Economics Essay

Undertaking ) â€Å" Identify and explicate how the economic downswing may impact straight and indirectly on the wellness of people in the UK. Discuss with mention to identify positions on wellness inequalities and socioeconomic position † â€Å" Those who do n't cognize history are destined to reiterate it. † Edmund Burke ( 1729-1797 ) 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Poor wellness affects the lower-classes more significantly and disproportionately than the upper-classes ( Chadwick, 1843 ) . Somewhat before his clip Chadwick concluded the unequal impact of hapless wellness on lower socio-economic groups is evitable. Indeed, Chadwick claimed that he could cut the decease rate in London by a 3rd by bettering the conditions of the lower-classes ( Chadwick, 1843 ) . Figure: Scanned infusion from the original study by Edwin Chadwick on the healthful conditions of the laboring population of Great Britain ( 1843 ) . 1.2 Chadwick ‘s belief in miasma, as the instrument of decease, was incorrect but his decision that the impact of ill-health and mortality on the lower-classes was greater than that of â€Å" upper-classes † was anything but incorrect. In 1844 Engles claimed the disparity was due to the chase of wealth by the upper-classes, the middle class, at the disbursal of the wellness of the lower-classes, the labor, and referred to the phenomenon as â€Å" societal slaying † ( Engles, 1844 ) . 1.3 Since Chadwicks ‘ study in 1843 many others, most notably, the Black Report ( DHSS, 1980 ) , the Whitehead Report ( Whitehead, 1988 ) , the Atchison Report ( 1997 ) and the Marmot Review ( 2010 ) , conclude that those in lower-classes or lower socio-economic groups are more likely to be affected by hapless wellness, and as a effect the labor will see higher mortality which is unjust and wholly evitable ( Bradby, 2009 ) . The purpose of this paper is to place and explicate how the 08/09 economic downswing may impact the wellness of people in the UK with specific mention to social-class and wellness inequalities. 2.0 Social-class and wellness inequalities 2.1 The Registrar General ‘s categorization of social-class, conceived in 1911, was based on business with specific mention to the implied societal position of that business ( Bartley and Blane, 2009 ) . This method of categorization, limited by its stiff contemplation of a structured-hierarchal-unchanging-society, was superseded in 2001 by the National Statistics Socio-economic Classification ( NS-SEC ) , an internationally recognized categorization that takes history of position, income, chances, security, instruction, and liberty and control ( Denny and Early, 2005 ) . 2.2 In using NS-SEC, Marmot ( 2010 ) showed the sum of societal inequality persons experience is comparative to the sum of wealth and power wielded by those single ; the less wealth, power and influence and accordingly the lower social-class the greater the inequality. Graham ( 2007 ) , identified the beginnings of economic and societal inequality are hapless instruction, deficiency of occupation chance, and accordingly hapless income chances, and demonstrated a generational geographic temperament to ill-health and disablement. 2.3 The eventual societal place, money, power, and material wealth acquired in life are non relative to their wellness hazards, ( Marmot, 2010 ) . Jointly the determiners of wellness are rooted in the societal, geographical, environmental, political, and material universe ; which affect the mental and physical wellbeing of persons unevenly. Dahlgren and Whitehead ( 1991 ) clearly describe the determiners of wellness as a multifactorial-socio-economic phenomenon of which the bulk is under the control of those with greater power, see Figure: The chief determiners of wellness ( Beginning: Dahlgren and Whitehead, 1991 ) . below: Figure: The chief determiners of wellness ( Beginning: Dahlgren and Whitehead, 1991 ) . 2.4 The societal inequalities in wellness are described by Bartley et al.. ( 2004 ) as 4 theoretical accounts: 2.4.1 The behavioral theoretical account which advocates the single chooses to damage their ego through their ain hapless picks such as intoxicant maltreatment, drug usage, smoke, and hapless diet doing fleshiness ( Bartley et al.. 2004 ) . 2.4.2 The materialist theoretical account which suggest the quality of your material universe such as your house, the location you live in, and handiness of quality merchandises has an impact on your wellness ( Bartley et al.. 2004 ) . 2.4.3 The psyco-social theoretical account analyses the relationship between the physiological effects of perceived societal unfairness on the human organic structure. High emphasis, deficiency of support, emotional withdrawal, relationships, can consequence harmful biological alterations which manifest in unwellnesss ( Bartley et al.. 2004 ) . 2.4.4 The life class theoretical account, which combines strands from the behavioral, materialist, and psychosocial theoretical account. If you are of a lower social-class, societal mobility is improbable and your material universe is improbable to alter for the better, nor are you behaviours or stressors, all of which have negative cumulative effects that damage wellness but can-not be mitigated by societal capital, ( Bartley et al.. 2004 ) . 2.5 Locker ( 2008 ) describes the incorporate nature of these theoretical accounts as the â€Å" web of causing † . Suggestive of the proposition that no individual theoretical account histories for all causes of ill-health but without uncertainty wellness inequalities manifest in more long-run unwellness for lower-classes, and higher infant mortality rates, non to advert a greater opportunity of coronary bosom diseases, shot, lung malignant neoplastic diseases, self-destructions, and respiratory disease ( Marmot, 2010 ) . 3.0 Recession and Downturns 3.1 The definition of a â€Å" Recession † is widely accepted as two-or-more back-to-back quarters of negative growing. The ONS has recorded eight recessions over the past 55 old ages ; on norm of 1 every 6.8 old ages, Table: Eight recessions between 1956-2009, associated figure of negative growing periods and cumulative impact on GDP. ( Beginning: ONS, 2011 ) refers ( ONS, 2011 ) . Table: Eight recessions between 1956-2009, associated figure of negative growing periods and cumulative impact on GDP. ( Beginning: ONS, 2011 ) . 3.2 Literature suggests the lower socioeconomic category suffer more well in times of recession, although Elliott et Al. ( 2009 ) suggest the longer-term agony and in some respects, the greatest consequence on lower social-classes is from the downswing. The 08/09 recession started in Q2/08 and ended in Q3/09, stand foring six quarters of negative growing and has the greatest cumulative decrease in GDP ( ONS, 2011 ) . Elliott et Al. ( 2009 ) province the length of recession and longer-term impacts of the recession are dissociated. The writers attempt at a graphical representation of Elliott et Al. ‘s premise are seen in below: Figure: Writers graphical representation of Elliott et Al. ‘s premise that the recession and downswing are dissociated 3.4 This representation may propose the consequence of rebalancing is more likely to impact lower social-classes than the recession its ego, given that market forces manipulated by higher social-classes create the environment for a recession, which is rebalanced by cardinal authorities at the disbursal of the lower-classes in the signifier of decreased public disbursement and accordingly a decrease in employment and societal services. 4.0 Social-class and the economic downswing 4.1 Harmonizing to Marmot and Bell ( 2009 ) recessions have greater impact on those of a lower socio-economic place due to their inability to endure a recession. Although, Gerdtham and Ruhm ( 2006 ) , based on an analysis of OECD informations, claimed mortalities rates decline during recessions an analysis of informations obtained from the ONS demonstrates that morality rates as a % of population did non worsen universally over the period of 1956 – 2009 against the mean mortality rate for that period. Harmonizing the the ONS information for the first 5 recessions the mortality rate was higher than norm when considered as a % of population. During the 90/91 recession the mortality rates as a per centum of population was close norm and so declined significantly during the latest recession, which concur with Rhum ( 2005 ) findings, Figure: Mortality rates as a % of population during recession old ages. ( Beginning: ONS 2011 ) refers. Figure: Mortality rates as a % of population during recession old ages. ( Beginning: ONS 2011 ) 4.2 Interestingly the unemployment rate as a per centum of the population when considered against the mean unemployment for the period 1973-2009, was significantly lower in the 73/74 recession and merely reached para at the beginning of the 90/91 recession, Figure: Unemployment rates as a per centum of population during recession old ages refers. Martikainen et Al. ( 2007 ) identified in their survey, mortality rates do non needfully increase during recession old ages, and in fact, grounds suggests the antonym. Specifically, during the last recession mortality rates appear to be above the norm during periods of high unemployment, Figure: Mortality rates as a % of population during recession old ages. ( Beginning: ONS 2011 ) and Figure: Unemployment rates as a per centum of population during recession old ages refer. Figure: Unemployment rates as a per centum of population during recession old ages, ( Beginning: ONS, 2011 ) 4.3 Marmot ( 2010 ) , Elliott et Al. ( 2010 ) , Kondo et Al. ( 2008 ) , conclude the impact on wellness is straight related to social-class, which is important when you consider latest recession. Evidence shows that unemployment by and large rises and with that rise there is besides a rise in the mortality rates ( as a per centum of population ) with the exclusion of the latest recession ( ONS, 2011 ) . 4.4 A quick and soiled statistical reappraisal for the period 1973-2009 of % decrease in GDP, against the % unemployed suggests a tendency for social-class effected during recession see.Table: England and Wales – Population Total, Deaths, Mortality Rates, Unemployment Rates, against recession old ages. below. Table: England and Wales – Population Total, Deaths, Mortality Rates, Unemployment Rates, against recession old ages. 4.5 Using the 73/74 and 75 recessions as a benchmark and presuming the social-class affected by the recession contributed to the loss of GDP, it is apparent that the undermentioned recessions affected different social-classes accepting mean net incomes applies to social-class. 4.6 The 80/81 recession saw more people unemployed but less of an impact on GDP, which implies those unemployed contributed otherwise to GDP coevals proposing lower paid workers, lending less to the coevals of GDP were unemployed, this tendency is more apparent in the 90/91 recession. However, the 08/09 recession appears different the ratio of unemployed to the decrease in GPD is similar to that of the 73/74 and 75 recessions. 4.7 Vaitilingam ( 2009 ) suggested the 08/09 recession would impact the in-between category and given the important addition in loss of GDP in relation to the figure of unemployed is implicative of a more flush worker going unemployed. 4.8 In kernel the information suggest the greater the decrease in GDP relation to the rate of unemployment the different category affected by the recession. Therefore, in every instance other than the 08/09 recession the per centum of unemployed has been greater than the decrease in GDP. This suggests that lower category are proportionately more instantly affected by the Recession than higher categories. In the instance of the 08/09 recession, the decrease in GDP is greater than the rate of unemployment proposing a high socio economic category will be instantly affected by the recession, which is really unusual for the UK. How that manifest down the societal strata is yet to be observed. 5.0 Decision 5.1 It is widely accepted that hapless wellness affects lower social-classes more significantly and disproportionally and that it is evitable, ( Marmot, 2010 ; Bradby 2009 ) . Occupation entirely, as step of social-class in out dated and does non take history of the diverse societal stratification seen in modern society where position, income, chances, security, instruction, and liberty and control, vary well throughout occupational sets ( Bartley and Blane, 2009 ; Denny and Early, 2005 ) . 5.2 Marmot ( 2010 ) and Graham ( 2007 ) showed the less wealth, power and influence and the lower social-class the greater wellness inequality. This wellness in equality Graham ( 2007 ) , and Dahlgren and Whitehead ( 1991 ) claim is associated with hapless instruction, deficiency of occupation chance and hapless income chances. The behavioral, stuff, psychosocial and life class theoretical accounts, discussed by Bartley et al.. ( 2004 ) and Lockers ( 2008 ) â€Å" web of causing † by definition place the determiners of wellness are rooted in the societal, geographical, environmental, political, and material universe. 5.3 The clear premise by Elliott et Al ( 2009 ) and Marmot and Bell ( 2009 ) that recessions doing greater and more well longer enduring to those of lower socio-economic category is mostly without challenge. The effects of economic rebalancing on lower social-classes is less good understood, nor are the longer term effects of the downswing in the signifier of decreased public disbursement and accordingly a decrease in employment and societal services that are to a great extent relied upon. Does policy alteration better conditions for lower social-classes or does it amplify the effects of an already unequal system. 5.4 Gerdtham and Ruhm ( 2006 ) show there is grounds of displacements in mortality rates around recessions although the overall consequence of recession and unemployment on longer term mortality rates is less clear. If, as Marmot ( 2010 ) , Elliott et Al. ( 2010 ) , and Kondo et Al. ( 2008 ) , claim the impact on wellness is straight related to social-class, and if one can pull the decision that different social-classes suffer otherwise during recessions so Vaitilingam ( 2009 ) 08/09 middle-class recession should uncover, as the longer term effects of the downswing come to an terminal, that there is no noticeable addition in preventable unwellnesss and deceases amongst the most vulnerable. The consequence on the lower social-classes may non be as apparent this clip unit of ammunition albeit strictly by opportunity. How proud would Chadwick be of our advancement? Mentions ‘The Acheson Report ‘ ( 1998 ) Independent Inquiry into Inequalities in Health, HMSO. Bartley M and Blane D. 2008. ‘Inequality and social-class ‘ in Scambler, G. ( erectile dysfunction ) Sociology as Applied to Medicine ( 6th Edition ) London: Saunders pp 115-132. Bartley, M. Blane, D. Davey-Smith, G. 2004. The Sociology of Health Inequalities, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Bradby, H. 2009. Medical sociology: an debut. London: Sage. Chadwick, E. 1843. Report on the healthful status of the laboring population of great Britain. London: Clowes and Sons. Black. D. 2008. Inequalities in wellness: study of a research working group. London: DHSS. Dahlgren, G. and Whitehead, M. 1991. Policies and Schemes to Promote Social Equity in Health. Stockholm: Institute for Futures Studies Engles, F. 1844. The status of the working category in England in 1844. Germany: publishing house terra incognita. Elliott E, Harrop E, Rothwell H, Shepherd M and Williams GH ( 2010 ) Working Paper 134: The Impact of the Economic Downturn on Health in Wales: A Review and Case Study, Cardiff School of Social Sciences, November ( 2010 ) . Denny, E. & A ; Earle, S. 2005. Sociology for nurses. Cambridge: Polity Press. Graham, H. ( 2007 ) Unequal Lives: Health and Socio-economic Inequalities, Buckingham: Open University Press. Gerdtham, U. G. and Ruhm, C. J. 2006. Deaths rise in good economic times: grounds from the OECD. Economics & A ; Human Biology 4 ( 3 ) , pp. 298aˆ?316. Kondo, N. Subramanian, S. Kawachi, I. Takeda, Y. and Yamagata, Z. ( 2008 ) Economic recession and wellness inequalities in Japan: analysis with a national sample, 1986aˆ?2001, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 62, 869aˆ?875. Locker, ( 2008 ) ‘Inequality and social-class ‘ in Scambler, G. ( erectile dysfunction ) Sociology as Applied to Medicine ( 6th Edition ) London: Saunders pp 18-55. Marmot, M. and Bell, R. 2009. ‘How will the fiscal crisis affect wellness? ‘ British Medical Journal ; 338: b1314 Marmot M ( Chairman ) . Fair society, healthy lives – strategic reappraisal of wellness inequalities in England station 2010. London: The Marmot Review, 2010. Martikainen, P, Maki N & A ; Jantti M. ( 2007 ) The effects of unemployment on mortality following workplace retrenchment and workplace closing: a registeraˆ?based followaˆ?up survey of Finnish work forces and adult females during economic roar and recession. American Journal of Epidemiology 165 ( 9 ) , pp. 1070aˆ?1075. ONS, 2011. Statbase [ online ] . Available at: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nscl.asp? ID=7433. Accessed: 31 March 2011. Ruhm, C. ( 2005 ) Comment: Mortality additions during economic upturns. International Journal of Epidemiology 34:1206aˆ?1211 Vaitilingam, R ( 2009 ) . Recession Britain: Findingss from Economic and Social Research. Economic and Social Research Council. Whitehead M. ( 1988 ) The wellness divide. In: Townsend P, Davidson N, Whitehead M, eds. Inequalities in wellness: the Black study and the wellness divide. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1988: pp215-356.

Microelectronics Reliability Essay

Abstraction Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems or short MEMS, is a engineering that is basically a combination of electro-mechanical stuffs and mechanical technology at a micro graduated table. The engineering used for fiction is derived from the IC fiction procedures and typically ranges from one micrometer to several millimetres. The MEMS engineering finds its usage in assorted applications where for case, micro detectors and/or micro actuators are needed. As its name suggests, MEMS devices are basically mechanical devices that can dwell of fixed parts or a combination of fixed and traveling parts. However this besides gives rise to dependability issues due to both electrical as mechanical issues [ 2 ] s.a. stuff weariness, stiction, dazes etc. The dependability can be greatly enhanced [ 1 ] turn outing the engineering can be suited for usage in high terminal applications. The end of this essay is to present and familiarise the reader to an extent with the operation and the dependability issues of a MEMS accelerometer. First the working of a MEMS accelerometer will be covered after which its dependability will be considered. Here assorted dependability issues will be considered after which†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..some†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.solutions will be given on how to cover with†¦..some†¦..of†¦..the dependability issues. Finally a decision will be drawn if the presented solution†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.solutions†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..are bettering the dependability.IntroductionMEMS engineering devices have established a repute over the old ages as capable detector and actuator devices doing assorted information garnering techniques possible. The engineering enables applications to garner information from the environment in assorted spheres merely to change over them to the electrical sphere. Following to the electrical sphere, the detectors can be fabricated to observe mechanical, thermic, chemical, magnetic and optical signals. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Give some more illustrations about the usage and demo some images etc. particularly mention the usage in automotive industry †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ One noteworthy illustration that possibly talk easy to the head is the usage of MEMS detectors in the modern smartphones. The detector enables the phone to observe up from down for assorted maps s.a. exchanging to a larger screen, GPS applications and game characteristics where the phone detects the tilting for playing some games. Figure†¦ ..shows the usage of accelerometers germinating over the old ages. [ 4 ] As the figure points out, the MEMS accelerometer had made its first visual aspect as a clang detector in an airbag. From there it evolved to be used even in playthings where it needs to be inexpensive and is produced in a high volume. However an application in toys doesn’t need to be extremely dependable unlike the usage in application for automotive terminals s.a. the airbag where a life can be saved depending on the right operation of the detector.1. MEMS accelerometerBasic operationFigures†¦shows a basic MEMS capacitive accelerometer. [ 4 ] †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ . The MEMS detector shown uses two home bases connected to the cardinal mass w.r.t the fixed home bases as differential capacitances. The electrical capacity is given by The two home bases attached to the cardinal mass signifier series electrical capacities with the fixed home bases. When there is acceleration the mass will travel in the positive or negative way depending on the motion. This in bend will ensue in positive or negative electrical capacity and depending on the distance the capacitances are smaller or larger. Thus for positive motion one capacitance will increase positively while the other will increase negatively, or frailty versa for negative motion. When there is no acceleration the movable mass will be back at its place due to the snap belongingss of Si which consequences in a place equidistance between each outer plates. This will ensue in zero electromotive force on the cardinal home base as the electrical capacity on each side are equal ( except for the sine ) . This is because the outer home bases can be driven with a square moving ridge with the coveted frequence so that one home base sees a positive signal while the other sees a negative signal, and frailty versa. For positive motion the end product square moving ridge is in stage with the input signal resulting in a greater magnitude when demodulated. For negative motion this is the antonym. The described device has merely two outer home bases which means that the sensitiveness will be low. To increase the sensitiveness the figure off traveling fingers ( outer plates ) must be increased [ 1 ] . However every bit will be shown in the text, the more moving parts in the accelerometer the higher the chance of failure.2. Common MEMS failure mechanismsAlthough the MEMS engineering has proved its worth, there are many failure mechanisms that need to be considered when planing to hold a qualitative merchandise at the terminal of the processing. Table†¦ [ 6 ] summarizes the common failure mechanisms of MEMS devices:FailureCauseMechanical FractureOverload, daze ; Corrosion ; FatigueStictionVan der Waals force ; Capillary force ; Chemical bonding ; Electrostatic charging ; Residual emphasisCharge accretionElectric emphasis ; Radiation ; Improper handlingWearAdhesion ; Abrasion ; Corrosion ; Surface wearinessCreep and wearinessIntrinsic emphasis ; Applied emphasis ; Thermal emphasisElectric short and unfastenedDielectric stuff debasement ; ESD, high electric field ; Electromigration ; OxidationContaminationIntrinsic ( e.g. , crystal growing ) ; Manufacturing-induced ; Usage enviro nment-inducedAs the accelerometer is considered as the instance survey, merely some of the failure mechanisms are of involvement. The most of import failure mechanisms are Mechanical breaks. Following to that stiction is besides of import as the accelerometer contains traveling parts. In ulterior subdivisions some solutions will be presented on how to better some of the failure mechanisms.Mechanical fractures†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Mechanical break is the most common failure manner and largely is a consequence of Shocks. Dazes are fundamentally sudden accelerations. While usually an accelerometer operates under conditions merely holding to cover low g-shocks s.a. in consumer electronics, auto clang detectors need to defy much more than that to be dependable. Apart from dazes the mechanical failure manner can besides be a consequence of in-use-stiction as a consequence of suspended parts doing contact that under normal conditions doesn’t occur. The latter will be shows in the fol lowing subdivision.Reducing mechanical breaksTo better the MEMS accelerometer assorted methods can be used. One normally used method is to restrict the motion of the cogent evidence mass by implementing a stopper. Figure†¦..shows an execution of the latter. [ 7 ] The T-shaped construction is the stopper. By implementing the stopper, the break of the back uping beams can be avoided as the maximal emphasis on the beams given by the snap is non exceeded. Following to restricting the emphasis it besides prevents the in-use-stiction as the moving parts are prevented from doing contact with the fixed parts. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..fatigue†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..shocks†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..StictionStiction is one of the most common failure mechanisms in MEMS and occurs where suspended constructions are used ( traveling parts ) . When different parts s.a. the fixed fingers in the accelerometer make contact, these can stay affiliated to one another. Figure†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ . [ 6 ] †¦shows some illustrations of sidelong or/and perpendicular stiction. Fig†¦ Examples of assorted stiction ( a ) no stiction ; ( B ) merely sidelong stiction ; and ( degree Celsius ) lateral and perpendicular stiction [ 6 ] . The stiction occurs peculiarly in micromachined constructions where the surface country to volume ratio is big ensuing in a typically little stiffness of reconstructing springs. The stiction can hold assorted causes and most of these can be due to processing, elevated RH degrees and dazes. The adhesion occurs either due to van der Waals, electrostatic forces ( trapped charge ) , capillary forces or a combination of these [ 7 ] .Reducing stictionAs the failure mechanisms of MEMS devices are progressively researched, many ways have been proposed to cut down stiction. Some of these where:Modifying the structural stiffnessDesign of the traveling parts with higher stiffness to get the better of the stiction forceSurface chemical scienceUsing hydrophobic surfaces to forestall H2O from coming into contact with the MEMS structures as H2O causes capillary force and hence stiction [ 6 ] . Alternatively a hermetic waterproofing can be usedRough surfacesRough surfaces reduces the Van der Waals f orce and with that the stictionImplementing a stopper to restrict the motion of the cogent evidence mass ( see old subdivision )Anti stiction coating3. DependabilityDefinition of the dependabilityBefore discoursing the dependability of an accelerometer, the definition of dependability must be considered. Reliability is defined as the chance of a certain merchandise to execute harmonizing to its specifications within typical operating conditions for the expected life-time [ 2 ] . The expression for this is given by As for the failure rate, which is defined as the ratio of the entire figure of failures to the entire operating clip [ 1 ] . Thus ? For measuring the dependability there are several standard theoretical accounts that can be used, viz.The exponential dependability distributionThe binomial dependability distributionThe Poisson dependability distributionWeibull dependability distributionIn this text the exponential signifier is used for the dependability analysis as its less complex than other lifetime distribution theoretical accounts. Then the dependability is given by In world the failure rate is besides a map of clip. The failure rate ( as a map of clip ) follows the behaviour of a bathing tub curve [ 1 ] . [ 2 ] The infant mortality part is caused by merchandise defects and perchance besides by cognize how restrictions like when proving paradigms [ 2 ] , as for the wear-out part, this is merely as its name suggests. Here the chance of no failure before clip T is given by [ 9 ] When ciphering the failure rate for increasing smaller intervals of clip, the jeopardy rate H ( T ) is obtained, with However, because we are sing the exponential failure distribution, the jeopardy rate will be changeless and equal to the failure rate. Here we can see merely the utile clip from the bathing tub curve, that is, most infant mortality failures ( with ruinous defects ) can be filtered out during fabricating trials [ 1 ] . This means that we can see the failure rate to be more changeless and therefore the instantaneous jeopardy rate H ( T ) is merely the failure rate.4. Dependability of a capacitive accelerometerAs was stated in the Introduction subdivision, the capacitive accelerometer will be used for the chance analysis since it’s widely used and needs to be dependable adequate particularly in life endangering state of affairss s.a. auto clangs. The structural diagram of an accelerometer with 2N-fingers is shown in Figure†¦ . [ 8 ] Here the accelerometer consists of fixed and movable parts which all demand to be fault-free. The accelerometer consists of 4 ground tackles, 4 back uping beams, 2N-fixed fingers, one movable cardinal mass and N-movable fingers attached to the cardinal mass. As stated before, utilizing more fingers increases the sensitiveness of the accelerometer. Here the system can be considered as a series theoretical account [ 1 ] because if any of the constituents fail, the whole system fails. For simpleness, the fixed parts can be considered holding perfect dependability as most defects are filtered out during the fabricating trial while the traveling parts can hold a higher dependability of failure. The dependability is so given by ( Rdegree Fahrenheitcorresponds to the traveling fingers ) Therefore the entire failure rate is merely the amount of the failure rates which is given by As can be noted, there is a trade-off between the sensitiveness and the failure rate as both are dependent on n-fingers. As the figure of fingers can be increased to better the sensitiveness, this will convey the dependability down.5. General solutionAs discussed antecedently the mechanical break and stiction are thermoset of import failure mechanisms. Here it was shows how to cut down these failures and hence besides the dependability. However if the device fails anyway so it’s considered useless. Unfortunately this can hold serious effects if it’s used in airbag systems and therefore the dependability still needs to be higher. To make this a more general attack can be used. This attack makes usage of ‘spare parts’ . If the accelerometer is broken up into smaller faculties connected together with some excess faculties, the latter can be used to replace the faulty faculties. As the faculties can be connected to some circuitry that would feel if the moving parts are faulty, a faulty faculty can be excluded and replaced by a excess one and this procedure is repeated until the redundant parts are used for replacing. This method is known as BISR ( built in self fix ) . Figure†¦..illustrates this. †¦ . Here the k-out-of-n redundancy theoretical account can be used for the analysis [ 1 ] . The k-out-of-n system consists out of n-modules, withK-modules non-faulty to guarantee the right operation of the MEMS system. When utilizing such a system, until all the excess faculties are used and at least one faculty from the chief device is faulty at the clip, so the system can no longer map decently. This means that the system, unlike when merely one chief faculty is used, is a parallel system. Figure†¦.illustrates this. †¦.. As the figure shows a 3-out-4 system is assumed. Notice that merely the moving parts are considered. That’s similar to the one-module device we can concentrate on the moving parts merely as these cut down the dependability at higher rate than the fixed parts. Again the dependability of one faculty can be done similar as for the one faculty device antecedently discussed in text. The dependability is so given by ( Rdegree Fahrenheitcorresponds to the traveling fingers ) Therefore the entire failure rate is merely the amount of the failure rates which is given by Notice that unlike earlier, the failure rate is reduced as the figure of traveling fingers are increased for better sensitiveness. This means that the trade-off that had to be made earlier is non made any more and a much better dependability is obtained. The entire dependability of a system is given [ 1 ] by Where m is the excess faculty. Therefore in this instance the dependability is given by Inserting the exponential signifier of the dependability for a faculty However, utilizing this method besides increases the usage of the figure of back uping beams which in bend reduces the dependability. But in the visible radiation of the improved dependability by utilizing the BISR attack, the overall dependability increases more than is decreases [ 1 ] doing this method really utile.DecisionMEMS have proven to be rather utile. However like any merchandise dependability issues can originate. The dependability of MEMS in toys doesn’t need to be all that high while for applications in automotive this needs to be really dependable as a unrecorded can depend on it when used in airbag systems. It has been shown that first it’s best to see the failure mechanisms and to better these which makes a longer lifetime possible. To better the dependability even further the BISR attack can be considered. From this it shows that the dependability can be really high and in the hereafter this attack might be considered to better other types of MEMS detectors.Mentions[ 1 ] X. Xiong, Y. Wu, and W. Jone, â€Å"Reliability analysis of self-repairable MEMS accelerometer, † in Proceedings of the 21st IEEE International Symposium on Defect and Fault Tolerance in VLSI Systems ( DFT '06 ) , pp. 236–244, October 2006 [ 2 ] Jacopo Iannacci, â€Å"Reliability of MEMS: A position on failure mechanisms, betterment solutions and best patterns at development level† , Center for Materials and Microsystems – CMM, Fondazione Bruno Kessler – FBK, Via Sommarive, 18, 38123 Povo, Trento, Italy, accepted 2014 [ 3 ] Frank CHoLLET, Haobing LIUâ€Å"A ( non so ) short direction to MEMS† , Creative Commons, version 5.1, 2013 [ 4 ] Michael Kraft, Neil M. White â€Å"MEMS for automotive and aerospace applications† , Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge, 2013 [ 5 ] X. Xiong, Y. Wu, and W. Jone, â€Å"Material weariness and dependability of MEMS accelerometers, † in Proceedings of the 23rd IEEE International Symposium on Defect and Fault Tolerance in VLSI Systems ( DFT '08 ) , pp. 314–322, October 2008 [ 6 ] Ynhan Huang et Al. â€Å"MEMS Reliability Review† , IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON DEVICE AND MATERIALS RELIABILITY, VOL. 12, NO. 2, JUNE 2012 [ 7 ] Allyson L. Hartzell, et Al. â€Å"MEMS Reliability† , Springer, New York, 2011 [ 8 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.fandroides.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/8930-62341-How-does-smart-phone-accelerometer-work.png [ 9 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure_rate

Acne Dressing project Essay

Introduction In early 2005 T.C. Chung, the departmental head of 3M Taiwan healthcare division was facing a decision whether to launch a product called Acne Dressing in Taiwan. The Taiwanese subsidiary had been transformed from a petty sales office in 1969 to one of 3M’s most extensive and successful subsidiaries in the 2000’s. The development project has a couple of major problems that need to be solved before Acne Dressing can be kicked off in Taiwan. Chung had the product go through 3M’s evaluation system and now he’s facing a big question – what to do with the product and how to make rational decisions about the future. In this case answer we analyze the problems that need to be solved if the launch is to be done. We address these problems and offer concrete recommendations for Chung and his team on how to continue with the project. Although Chung seems to be quite inexperienced and in need of support, the powerful 3M resources for product development and the knowledgeable project team consisting of different departments in 3M will provide him with all the resources he needs. Analysis As the development of Acne Dressing is a strongly technology-based project, the company HQ was heavily involved in the NPIS review that the product ultimately passed. Some aspects of the final form on the product however, still remain not clear enough. During the review process the local financial and technical divisions took part in finding ways to transform Hydrocolloid Dressing into a marketable product which costs were reasonable. The extent of this analysis seems not to have been adequate, as in the final stage of the review the HQ raised the issue of the potentially very costly product development. As this was the main concern raised by 3M HQ, it should be  carefully looked into and further analysis done. There were two additional concerns, these raised by the local project team. Firstly, according to the teams review, the potential customer group for acne treatment products in Taiwan seemed to be used to traditional methods for acne treatment. However, 3M had already noted that especially teenagers were using other kinds of products to help with acne – e.g. 3M’s Micropore Surgical Tape. Another thing to note relates to the fact that at this point nurses were the primary consumers of 3M hydrocolloid dressings. The case states that nurses had a tendency to cut the product into small pieces and use those pieces for superficial skin blemishes. This shows 3M that well-educated users of the product had already started using it for their planned purpose and in an innovative way – even without 3M asking them to do so. Secondly the team concluded that there are no similar products as Acne Dressing in the taiwanese market. As this was the case, the information on customer behaviour and potential sales was limited. This strongly suggested that customers would need to be educated to realize the potential of the new product. During the time there was an ongoing hype for do-it-yourself health care in TW during the time, and people were actively looking for new ways to look healthy. This fact suggests that the target groups of Acne Dressing could well be very receptive for the marketing of never-seen-before products. Conclusions Chung has multiple options concerning the product. With help from HQ, he should analyze the process costs of transforming the high-end hydrocolloid materials into customer-size Acne Dressing. The team should calculate if the material could be reworked into a usable size with the designs made by technical service department, and specifically focus on the costs of manufacturing. If the process is costly, the retail price of the product might be too high for the average 15-35 years old customer. A layman’s idea would be to cut down the size of the package and redesign it so it would be used like a plaster, of which one can cut suitable sized pieces for use. Also, the project team should have the HQ laboratories conduct a proper research on the dressing’s effectiveness against acne. This would be crucial in marketing efforts especially as the customer group is used to ‘traditional’ scientifically proven acne-treatment methods. A thorough  research for all hea lth effects is not needed with this position innovation because the material has already proved its value in hospitals around the world. This would follow the position innovation strategy through product upgrading (John Wiley & Sons, 2009). As 3M’s marketing department sees an opportunity in the new product, this would be a great possibility for a nation wide marketing campaign around the new product. With the risk that the price might be too high for some consumers, it should be sold in three different varieties of packages. Small, medium and large. The small package would be aimed at a segment that could not afford to constantly use the product. It could be used for the absolute worst kinds of acne induced blisters. Also the small package would work as an low risk purchase for the customers. After the product proved its excellency, the consumer would gradually move on to the medium and large packages. As the product would be quite new and require consumers to change the way they purchase health-care, it is important to emphasize two aspects: sampling and user experiences. This would be achieved by letting consumers test the product and see its effectiveness. Then it would be important for the user experiences to be distributed in nation-wide campaigns in the largest media platforms. Recommendations The Acne Dressing is a great product for the current market situation. It has gone through 3M’s organization-wide evaluation system, NPIS, without too many challenges. The product should be launched if the financial and technical service approve of the costs of manufacturing and deem the product positive. Chung must trust his local team and their advice, and abandon HQ’s advice in this matter. Should Acne Dressing prove to be a tremendous success in Taiwan, the possibilities for expanding are huge. As 3M Taiwan already has expanded to China, bringing in a new product to the market of a billion people could be business transforming. The whole acne market in the world is estimated to reach revenues of over $3 billion by 2016 (Wood, 2010). Chung must remain firmly behind the decision and trust the local team in Taiwan. The pessimism of the headquarters are not to be taken into wider consideration as long as necessary additional analysis is done. References Bibliography: Wood, L. 2010. Research and Markets: The Global Acne Market Is Estimated To Reach Revenues of $3.02 Billion by 2016 at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) Of 0.7%. [online] Available at: http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/05/07/idUS223712+07-May-2010+BW20100507 [Accessed: 30 Sep 2013]. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2009, Managing Innovation (Lecture slides)

How and why does ethnic identity affect the beauty cross-culturally Research Paper

How and why does ethnic identity affect the beauty cross-culturally - Research Paper Example Often, it is the financial imperatives of mass consumerism that gains the upper hand. As a consequence, ethno-cultural idea of beauty is in a process of losing its prominence. This essay will further substantiate this claim, namely, that ethnic identity mediated notions of beauty is challenged and weakened in contemporary America. To begin with, let us take the case of the United States which has evolved as a melting pot of cultures, races and ethnicities. As a result, American society has developed the aesthetics that is based on inclusiveness as opposed to exclusiveness. While this inclusiveness is a sign of racial equality in one sense, it has less noble connotations, too. In other words, the assimilation of African Americans into mainstream culture is as much a reflection of social progress as it is a measure of commercial opportunity. â€Å"As minority spending power and social interactions of different racial groups in America have increased over time, advertisers have increas ingly been concerned with reaching minority ethnic groups through visual inclusion. With minority purchasing power increasing, this contingency could no longer be ignored by marketers. However, many companies were initially leery of offending the White majority that was their consumer base. In a 1953 study, only 0.6% of ads contained African Americans. By 1980, that frequency had increased to approximately 5.7%, indicating that the country was becoming more comfortable with the use of Blacks in advertisements.† 1 One of the key features of ethnic identity is skin tone. It is also a key factor in racial classification. Skin tone is not merely a statistical or academic detail in practical life. For an individual, his or her skin tone has implications in all realms of life – be it social, official or political. Skin tone is also identified as a specific variable at the root of racially related issues. Hence, while universality of beauty is a laudable idea, the flip side of it is discouraging. For example, researchers have correlated skin tone with â€Å"feelings of self worth, attractiveness, self control, satisfaction, and with quality of life.† 2 The theory of ‘colorism’ is of salience here, which states that people of lighter-skin tone (across ethnicities) are given privilege over dark-skinned members of the same community. The interesting finding here is the applicability of this concept across and between ethnic groups. For example, â€Å"African American's tend to feel more favorable towards Black models with a lighter skin tone. This phenomenon is not exclusive to African Americans because colorism is concerned with actual skin tone, as opposed to racial or ethnic identity. Research done by Shyon Baumann (2008) has shown that people within our culture, regardless of race, have a set of ideals about how people should ideally look, including judgments regarding skin color. Lightness and darkness of skin tone have specific me anings attached to them and we subconsciously relate those meanings to those we encounter.† 3 The statistical veracity of the theory of colorism is a setback to ethnically identified notions of beauty. It is a serious dent to the preservation of authenticity and nativity in an atmosphere saturated with uniformity and conformity. There are qualifications to the theory of colorism though for people with strong ethnic identification feel more affinity towards a model which resembles their own features. Likewise, black consumers generally respond

Math 107 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Math 107 - Coursework Example Thus, this design helps control for some lurking variables and avoids problems with confounding. 10) The actual adults satisfied with their jobs= 54% * 1581 =854 adults. From this, the 95% confidence interval is 44% to 86%. This confidence interval in consistent with the national poll result of the significance test indicated, but is more informative since it gives a range of values for the true proportion of adults 12) Double-blind is a stringent way of conducting an experiment on human subjects in order to eliminate subjective bias on both experimental group and the experimenters. More than not, double-blind experiments are employed to achieve a higher standard of scientific rigor. In this method,  neither the subjects nor the researcher knows who belongs to a control group and who belongs to an experimental group. Thus, performing the experiment in a double-blind way is used to lessen the influence of individual prejudices and unintentional physical cues on the results of the experiment. In medical studies, double-blind methods applied since there is always the possibility that the study results would be affected by conscious and unconscious bias by the experimenter. 16) In trying to make a weighted voting system that works, one first notices that the chair and vice chair actually have the same power (given the rule), so they are given the same weight (say, 5). The other three members also have the same weight, say 3 (two members must weigh more than of the chairs). Then the quota would have to be smaller than or equal to 13 (for the two chairs plus one other member to win), smaller than or equal to 11 (for one of the chairs plus two members to win), and larger than 10 and 9 (so that the two chairs alone, or the three members alone, cannot win). Thus it looks like 11 works here; indeed, the weighted voting system [11:5, 5, 3, 3, 3] is equivalent to the

Site visit Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Site visit - Coursework Example The National Water Company provides those services and it is important for them to be efficient in providing the services. In order for the efficiency and effectiveness of the company to be realized, the company has an information technology department. The department has the responsibility to provide network facilities, train other employees on the use of new technology and installation of new technology in the organization. IS department of National Water Company is the company’s Information Technology service provider for the company’s department’s, and division. The Information services include network installation, equipment, procurement, systems, and maintenance and operation. I visited National Water Company on 10th April 2014for 6 hours. The report evaluates the company’s computer department facilities, services, and their daily services. The paper also specifies the problems the company faces with their system. The paper has also suggested the solution based on IS study. Therefore, the paper discusses the type of infrastructure, IT security measurements, IT services, IT budget, and IT policies for National Water Company. This report has been prepared with all reasonable skill, care and diligence and summarizes the findings from the 6 hours site visit. All values quoted in this Report are based on information provided by the Client. All values quoted are estimates and may require additional detailed investigation to confirm their validity. The Saudi Arabia government has prioritized the water sector. This is attributed to the importance of the sector in the country. National Water Company abbreviated as NWC, is a Saudi Arabia Joint Stock Company that is fully owned by the Public Investment Fund. The company was established to offer wastewater and water services according to the latest international regulations by the national cadres concerned efforts in liaison with international operators via foreign

British legal system Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

British legal system - Essay Example The situation in question states that Mike was travelling on the road perpendicular to Betty and continues to go through the red light as Betty starts to go and the resulting consequence. It needs to be considered whether a duty of care is owed or whether there is a breach of duty on Mike's part. Assuming that the injuries to Anne and Betty bare caused by Mike's negligence and that harm is not too remote, Mike will be liable in damages to both Anne & Betty and if Betty can give evidence then Betty being able to recover damages under the Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1934 and Fatal Accidents Act 1976, respectively. Whether Betty has any contributory negligence or not needs to be ascertained. To impose liability upon Mike there is a need to justify his negligence. It is established that all road users owe a duty of care to other road users (Nettleship v Weston2). It follows that Mike and Sue have a potential duty to Betty and Anne in respect of the harm both suffer. That harm, respectively personal injury and property damage suffered by Betty and personal injury suffered by Anne, both of which appear to be foreseeable consequences of a road traffic accident. Whether Mike and Sue are in breach of the duty of care owed to Betty & Anne requires consideration of the magnitude of risk, the seriousness of the harm suffered, the utility of the defendant's conduct and any precautions, which might have been taken guard against the risk. Betty does not take legal action against Mike trusting on Julian's advice. Julian is a corporate solicitor who solely deals with mergers and acquisitions. Betty asked him for legal advice in relation to her accident when Julian had came around to visit her. However Betty mentions her situation to another solicitor who tells her she could have received a sizeable amount in damages if she had gone ahead with a claim against Mike timeously. In such condition Betty need to consider Julian's liability and Anne may sue against Mike for damages personal injury claims, medical and other expenses, lose of expectation or and lose of earning. To impose liability or take reasonable steps against Julian cases need to be examined which indicated whether Julian owes any duty towards Betty. In Murphy v Brentwood District Council3, the House of Lords held that the council was not liable on the basis that the council could not owe a greater duty of care to the claimant than the builder. In doing so the court also overruled Anns v Mertonlondon Borough Council4 and the two-part test, preferring instead a new three-part test suggested by Lords Keith, Oliver and Bridge in Caparo v Dickman5]. In order to impose liability on the employers, Betty has to established foresight, proximity and fairness and it is the current test. In Caparo industries v Dickman [1990], the shareholders in a company bought more shares and then made a successful takeover bid for the company after studying the audited accounts prepared by the defendants. They later regretted the move and sued the auditors claiming that they had relied on accounts,

Delinquent youth subculture (Gangs) Research Paper

Delinquent youth subculture (Gangs) - Research Paper Example Rubel, these youth gang members mostly comprised of Mexicans who had migrated to the region of United States and may have developed a gang due to their difficult lives in America (Rubel, 1965). It has even been recorded that gangs started surfacing in major regions of United States such as New York during the period of 1800s when the Industrial Revolution was gaining pace (Franzese, 2006). As industrialization started to spread throughout the United States and attracted more and more immigrant populations, increase in number of gangs was witnessed in larger metropolitan areas such as Chicago (Franzese, 2006). The United States has witnessed an upsurge in the number of gangs and the gang members especially during the periods in which huge number of immigrant populations has travelled to the United States. Gangs have even emerged as a result of hostile activities that have been carried out against the ethnic groups they represent. In early periods of 1900s, Chicago witnessed an increas e in the number of African American gangs and gang members as a result of the hostilities they were facing at the hands of the White American gang members (Franzese, 2006). Later during the period of 1950s the African American gangs started becoming prominent on the streets of the Western regions of the United States (Franzese, 2006). These gang members could easily be witnessed in the regions where mostly those families resided that did not have access to proper economic opportunities. The Southern regions of the United States were the last in the race to experience the issue of gang related activity. Gang activity in these regions emerged and escalated between the periods of 1980s and 1990s (Franzese, 2006). Gang members and related activities are quite prevalent in the United States even in the years of 21st century. According to 2011 National Gang Threat Assessment, more than 1.4 million individuals are working with different gangs of United States and can be witnessed on the

Examination of Bacterial Infections Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Examination of Bacterial Infections - Essay Example The essay "Examination of Bacterial Infections" talks about a keen examination of bacterial infections and elements necessary to spread an infection. It provides facts concerning the conditions necessary to spread an infection, the nature of a potential host and the modes of pathogen transmission. A susceptible host is the one who has little resistance against a certain organism, therefore, when exposed to it, he or she is likely to contract a disease. A potential host can be made susceptible by factors such as; age, immunity or physical conditions. Certain bacteria have a natural affinity for persons of certain age groups. The very young and the very old persons are generally more susceptible to diseases compared to the older children and young adults. Low immunity can make a potential host susceptible to an infection. For instance, persons who have never been exposed to an infectious organism might not develop acquired natural immunity against it hence being more susceptible compar ed to the ones who have been exposed to it before. Nevertheless, physical conditions such as exposure to elements, malnutrition, and extreme fatigue can weaken the resistance to pathogenic invasions hence making the host susceptible. There are three primary modes of pathogen transmission that include vehicle, vector, and contact transmission. Vehicle transmission is whereby an object carries the disease-causing microorganism to the host. Vector transmission involves organisms such as insects that transmit the pathogens to the hosts.

Arming Pilots Essay Example for Free

Arming Pilots Essay After the September 11th attacks on America’s homeland, citizens became aware that action must be taken to protect passengers and pilots from terrorists. Although strict security measures have been put in place at all American airports, the only way to be certain that another terrorist attack does not occur using commercial aircraft lies in arming pilots with handguns. Not only will arming pilots help act as a preventative measure, it will ensure safer air travel and restore faith in America’s main form of long distance travel. Even though the number of hijackings is minuscule compared to the number of flights, arming pilots would be a first line of deterrence and a last line of defense. Some people may argue that other means should be used to stop hijackers, but as is the case with any illegal activity, if a person wants to commit a crime they will find the means. Therefore, the only way to prevent aircraft hijackings is with the use of guns. One alternative way that has been suggested is arming pilots with tasers, electric shock probes. These are considered problematic by many experts and do not guarantee bringing down a hijacker. As Criminal Justice expert Michael Swedemen said, â€Å"Had the pilots on the ill-fated planes on September 11th had stun guns, they might have dropped one of the hijackers, but the remaining three or four still would have overpowered the plane† (Dougherty, 2002, January 22). Arming pilots would also aid airlines in recovering from the economic downfall that has plagued the industry since the attacks. With armed pilots, passengers would know they are safe from any possibility of a hijacking and the only thing that might cause catastrophic damage would be an unforeseen mechanical problem. Should hijackers be among the passengers they could easily be brought down with guns similar to that of a defiant criminal. Opponents have argued that a stray bullet might penetrate the fuselage or inadvertently hit an innocent passenger. The Air Line Pilot’s Association has called for arming pilots using special ammunition that can kill an attacker but not pierce the fuselage (Dougherty, 2002, January 22). Hitting an innocent passenger is a risk that must be taken. One innocent life lost is far better than the possible countless losses on the hijacked aircraft and immanent destruction resulting on the ground. If passengers know that hijackers cannot take control of the plane, millions of Americans would once again begin flying which would improve economic conditions in a hurting industry. Other questions lie in the ability and mental state of a pilot to carry weapons. Senator Bob Smith (R-N. H. said, â€Å"Commercial pilots are trusted with the lives of thousands of Americans every day, and with proper training they could †¦ protect our skies from future acts of terrorism† (Dougherty, 2002, March 19). Pilots are some of the most mentally, physically, and psychologically tested people with hand/eye coordination that is among the best in any profession. Issuing firearms to pilots would, in effect, be like issuing a gun to a police officer. A pilot should be able to defend his aircraft instead of being left defenseless. The second amendment to the Constitution guarantees the right to bear arms. As this is true for a homeowner to protect his family and himself, this should be true for pilots and their aircraft should they come under attack. Although the idea of using air marshals still exists, they are seen as being less effective. Along with ineffectiveness, the cost of placing an air marshal on every flight is unrealistic. A pilot who has undergone the proper training can perform the same task while being paid by the airlines, rather than spending taxpayer’s dollars (Shaw, 2001, September 19). As support for handguns in the cockpit grows, we must ask ourselves if four guns had been in the cockpit on September 11th would 3,000 people be dead, two 110 story buildings have been brought down, the Pentagon attacked, and a nation left in shock? Americans must realize that committed terrorists will be able to get past security, leaving pilots as the last line of defense. Along with pilots, many Americans feel these measures have to be taken in order to make the friendly skies, friendly again.

Computer Data Storage Essay Example for Free

Computer Data Storage Essay Computers have brought about a revolution across all industries. They have changed the face of society. They are no longer specialized tools to be used by specially trained people. They are ubiquitous and used in almost every sphere of life. Computers have changed the way we work, be it any profession. Therefore, it is only natural that the role of computers in education has been given a lot of importance in recent years. Computers play a vital role in every field. They aid industrial processes, they find application in medicine; they are the reason why software industries developed and flourished and they play an important role in education. This is also why the education system has made computer education a part of school curriculum. Lets look at what role computer technology plays in the education sector. The advantages of computers in education primarily include: * Storage of information * Quick data processing * Audio-visual aids in teaching * Better presentation of information * Access to the Internet * Quick communication between students, teachers and parents * There are tools like spelling and grammar checker, thesaurus and dictionary, installed in the computer. Thus, it takes less time to proofread a written document * Also, there is no need to open up a dictionary book to look for meanings of words. * Typing is much faster than writing on a paper. * If there is a need for reorganizing the sentences or paragraphs, one can cut and paste and make the necessary changes. * In schools, computer education has been made compulsory to spread awareness about computers. As a matter of fact, computers have become a learning tool for children. Computers are a brilliant aid in teaching. Online education has revolutionized the education industry. Computer technology has made the dream of distance learning, a reality. Education is no longer limited to classrooms. It has reached far and wide, thanks to computers. Physically distant locations have come closer due to Internet accessibility. So, even if students and teachers are not in the same premises, they can very well communicate with one another. There are many online educational courses, whereby students are not required to attend classes or be physically present for lectures. They can learn from the comfort of their homes and adjust timings as per their convenience. Computers have given impetus to distance education. Computers facilitate effective presentation of information. Presentation software like PowerPoint and animation software like Flash among others can be of great help to teachers while delivering lectures. Computers facilitate audio-visual representation of information, thus making the process of learning interactive and interesting. Computer-aided teaching adds a fun element to education. Teachers hardly use chalk and board today. They bring presentations on a flash drive, plug it in to a computer in the classroom, and the teaching begins. Theres color, theres sound, theres movement the same old information comes forth in a different way and learning becomes fun. The otherwise not-so-interesting lessons become interesting due to audio-visual effects. Due to the visual aid, difficult subjects can be explained in better ways. Things become easier to follow, thanks to the use of computers in education. Computers enable access to the Internet which has information on literally everything. Computers enable storage of data in the electronic format, thereby saving paper. Memory capacities of computer storage devices are in gigabytes. This enables them to store huge chunks of data. Moreover, these deveices are compact. They occupy very less space, yet store large amounts of data. Both teachers and students benefit from the use of computer technology. Presentations, notes and test papers can be stored and transferred easily over computer storage devices. Similarly, students can submit homework and assignments as soft copies. The process becomes paperless, thus saving paper. Plus, the electronic format makes data storage more durable. Electronically erasable memory devices can be used repeatedly. They offer robust storage of data and reliable data retrieval. Computer hard drives and storage devices are an excellent way to store data. This was about the role of computers in education. But we know, its not just the education sector which computers have impacted. They are of great use in every field. Today, a life without computers is unimaginable. This undelines the importance of computer education. Knowledge of computers can propel ones career in the right direction. Computers are a part of almost every industry today. They are no longer limited any specific field. They are used in networking, for information access and data storage and also in the processing and presentation of information. Computers should be introduced early in education. I dont think I am making an overstatement in saying that computer education is as fundamental as learning English. Yes, it is. Conclusion: Computers have come a long way since the first unit was invented. With the advancements of hardware as well as software, we can now accomplish many, tasks such as typing papers, watching TV, editing videos, learning online and gaming. The world of computing has made our lives a lot more convenient. Without the invention and deployment of computers, there would be no social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter.

Symbolism Iconography

Symbolism Iconography The use of symbols and icons predates human spoken and written languages. In his book, Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art, Scott McCloud (1993) defines an icon as any image used to represent a person, place, thing, or idea. While a symbol is an image we use to represent concepts, ideas, and philosophies (p. 27).   He also defines Icons of the practical realm as icons of language, science, and communication (McCloud, 1993, p. 27). Each of these types of icons have varying degrees of meanings. A representational icons meaning is fluid and varies depending on the degree of realism. The second being non-pictorial icons, or as Scott McCloud calls them icons of the practical realm have a fixed and absolute meaning. Simply, their meaning does not change with their appearance such examples include the peace sign or the number 5. Finally, there are completely abstract icons. The most common being words. Words do not represent a pictorial meaning at all. Icons that have a fixed or absolute meaning are icons of the practical realm as McCloud states. These are such things as letters (A), numbers (5), punctuation (!), music notes (à ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢Ã‚ ª), and mathematical symbols like pi (à Ã¢â€š ¬). No matter how one writes or represents this icon the meaning stays the same. To visit the beginning, one would have to go back to 3300 BCE. This is the believed to be the beginning of Egyptian hieroglyphs (history-world.org, 2007). Many people believe that hieroglyphs are representational icons, in that they represent what they depict. This is not the case as it has been discovered that hieroglyphs are interpreted as sounds, much like our alphabet. For example, three birds in a row was not interpreted as birds instead it was interpreted as the sound baà ­u (McCloud, 1993, p. 12). Most of us have been taught the alphabet in grade school and that each letter represents at least one sound. No matter how one writes or types a letter, its meaning do es not change. For example, you can still read this sentence even though every word is in a different font. Some types of these icons have become pretty much universal with the advent of the digital world. Much like every word in this research paper they are completely abstract. None of these words visually represent what they mean. For example, if you read the word cat it does not represent the furry four-legged pets we know and love. A representational icons meaning is fluid and varies depending on the degree of realism. The best example, and the one Scott McCloud utilizes, is the human face (See visual example on the next page). In this example a photograph would be an icon that most represents real life. The next step down would be a realistic drawing of that face. There are many things that set these apart from actual faces Theyre smaller, flatter, less detailed, they dont move. They lack color but as pictorial icons go, they are pretty realistic (McCloud, 1993, p. 28). The third step is more abstract and looks close to the style found in most adventure comics. Continuing to simplify it we get to a face made from just lines and shapes, it looks more like a cartoon. Finally, we have a circle with two dots for eyes and a line for a mouth. The advantage to stripping down the realism is the universality of the imagery. The simpler it is the more people it could describe. Using the previous example, the picture can only describe one person while the realistic drawing could describe a few. The adventure style may represent thousands of people while the cartoon version could describe millions of people. Finally, the two dots and the line within a circle represents nearly all people. This graphic represents many gradients from complex to simple, realistic to iconic, objective to subjective, and specific to universal (McCloud, 1993, p. 46). However, this is just one side of an entire spectrum. McCloud (1993) states that the pictorial side is the received side where we need no formal education to get the message. The message is instantaneous (p. 49). The other side is perceived, as the spectrum becomes even more abstract it crosses from the representational icon to the completely abstract icon. This writing being perceived information. It takes time and specialized knowledge to decode abstract symbols of language (McCloud, 1993, p. 49). This creates an entire spectrum shown on the next page. McCloud (1993) states that when pictures are more abstracted from reality, they require greater levels of perception, more like words. When words are bolder, more direct, they require lower levels of perception and are received faster, more like pictures (p. 49). In his book, How to Design Logos, Symbols Icons, Gregory Thomas (2000) says that the oldest ideograph symbols are the circle, cross, triangle, and the square (p. 9-10). Circles were used to signify the endlessness of the universe, eternity, or God. These symbols were found on pre-Columbian caves. Open circles may represent openings such as eyes or a mouth. One with a dot in the center may represent the sun and this has been used in every cultural sphere on earth before inter-civilization communication (Thomas, 2000, p. 9). The cross predates Christianity and was one of the earliest signs traced back to the Neolithic Age. Now commonly used to signify Christianity. The triangle was symbolic due to its three even sides, used to define a multiple of triads such as birth, life and death or body, soul, and spirit (Thomas, 2000, p. 9-10). Opposite the circle, the square signifies matter, earth, restraint, solidarity, order, and safety (Thomas, 2000, p. 10). Present day a few people have come together to create standards. Seeing that everyone is now connected through the internet and many people travel throughout the world a need for a standard for symbols and signs arose. Out of this need the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) was created. Its main goal is to raise public awareness of ISO graphical symbols which transmit safety messages and other important information without creating language barriers (International Organization for Standardization, 2013). With this standardization, an individual would be able to travel anywhere, even where one may not know the language, and they would still be able to understand basic signs like no smoking, parking, or restroom. With the advent of the digital era there was need for more standardization. This first came in the form of the American Standard Code for Information Interexchange (ASCII) which is a standard that assigns letters, numbers, and other characters within the 256 slots available in 8-bit code (Computer Hope, n.d.). Slots 0-31 were non-printable codes, 32-127 are considered Lower ASCII and this contains the older American systems. Then there is the Higher ASCII, codes 128-255 which is programable and is based on the language of your operating system, the program currently being used, or for foreign letters (Computer Hope, n.d.). As one may have guessed this system became very limiting very fast as the internet became an international tool and this system only has 256 character slots. Thus, a new system was established. This new system is the Unicode Standard developed by the Unicode Consortium (unicode.org, 2015). The earliest updated version was released June of 2016, Unicode 9.0 sports a total of 1,114,112 code points (the same as a slot in ASCII) with only 267,819 code points being used (BabelStone, 2016). This gives more than enough room to accommodate language variances including a multitude of oriental symbols and everyones favorite: the emoji. First, a quick clarification on the difference between emojis and emoticons. Emojis are images and symbols that are rendered on the device, for example à °Ã… ¸Ã¢â€ž ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡, while emoticons are simple expressions and faces created with standard keyboard characters for example :-). Originating in Japan, emojis were developed in 1999 by Shigetaka Kurita, an employee of NTT DoCoMo. They were the biggest mobile-phone operator in Japan and were under increasing pressure to support a new obsession among the Japanese people, with images. Mr. Kurita, also known as Mr. Emoji, realized that digital communication robbed people of the ability to communicate emotion (Schenker, 2016). The name emoji originated from picture (e) and character (moji). This then became a part of the Shift JIS Japanese character encoding scheme. It wasnt until Apple incorporated the emoji that it became globally popular. However, in 2007 they incorporated an emoji keyboard into their mobile operating system (iOS) to be able to sell iPhones to Japanese customers, but hid this feature on iPhones sold everywhere else. People outside of Japan soon discovered this and they found that they could unlock the emoji keyboard by downloading a Japanese language app, and emojis spread like wildfire (Schenker, 2016). It wasnt until 2011 that Apple officially supported emojis internationally with the release of iOS 5. To make this trend a reality emoji character sets were incorporated into Unicode in 2010. Therefore, no matter what operating system is sending or receiving an emoji everyone can still view them because of the great standardization in digital communication. With a clear definition of emojis versus emoticons one may wonder what the father of the emoticon thinks about emojis. In an interview with the UKs Independent, Scott Fahlman, the Carnegie Mellon University professor who invented the emoticon, said I think they are ugly, and they ruin the challenge of trying to come up with a clever way to express emotions using standard keyboard characters. But perhaps thats just because I invented the other kind (Bignell, 2012). Today we have 1,851 different emojis and they have become more multi-cultural, racially diverse, and gender diverse. As a relatively recent development it has already come a far way and has a bright future ahead of it. While words are abstract icons, the recent revolution of emojis brings rise to the use of a unified standard for non-representational icons. Icons demand our participation to make them work. There is no life [in an icon] except that which you give to it. Its been over [forty-four] years since McLuhan first observed that people à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ didnt want goals so much as they wanted roles! And thats what visual iconography is all about (McCloud, 1993, p. 59). BabelStone. (2016, June 22). How many Unicode charachters are there? Retrieved from babelstone.co.uk: http://www.babelstone.co.uk/Unicode/HowMany.html Bignell, P. (2012, September 8). Happy 30th birthday emoticon! :-}. Retrieved from Independant.co.uk: http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/happy-30th-birthday-emoticon-8120158.html Computer Hope. (n.d.). computerhope.com. Retrieved from ASCII: http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/a/ascii.htm history-world.org. (2007, January). An Explanation of Hieroglyphics. Retrieved from International World History Project: http://history-world.org/hieroglyphics.htm International Organization for Standardization. (2013, January). The international language of ISO graphical symbols. Retrieved from iso.org: https://www.iso.org/files/live/sites/isoorg/files/archive/pdf/en/graphical-symbols_booklet.pdf McCloud, S. (1993). Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. Schenker, M. (2016, October 11). The suprising history of emojis. Retrieved from webdesignerdepot.com: http://www.webdesignerdepot.com/2016/10/the-surprising-history-of-emojis/ Thomas, G. (2000). How to Design, Logos, Symbols Icons. Cincinnati: How Design Books. unicode.org. (2015, December 1). What is Unicode? Retrieved from unicode.org: http://unicode.org/standard/WhatIsUnicode.html

Antimatter :: physics antimatter matter

What is Antimatter? Albert Einstein came up with the famous equation, E=mc^2 And thus defined mass as highly concentrated energy. With sufficiently high concentrations of energy, that energy can form matter. However when this matter is created it is balanced out by the creation of antimatter. When matter and antimatter come into contact they annihilate each other and release large amounts of energy. A teaspoon of antimatter, reacting with matter, would run a car continuously for 100,000 years. Not all particles have equivalent or rather, separate antiparticles. The electron and proton, as well as quarks, have antiparticles, such as the positron and antiproton because they have a charge to reverse. The neutron has an antiparticle because, although it has no charge, it has a magnetic moment to which the antineutron is opposite. The photon, however has only mass and directional velocity, thus there is no antiphoton. Protons and neutrons also have a baryon number and their antiparticles have an equal but opposite baryon number. The History of Antimatter The existence of Antimatter was first predicted when Paul Dirac combined quantum theory and special relativity in one equation. This equation, however presented two 'solutions' to the electron. Dirac interpreted this to mean that not only was there an negatively charged electron, but there was a positively charged antielectron which had all the characteristics of an electron but an opposite charge. In 1932 Carl Anderson detected the first antielectron. While studying the tracks of cosmic particles Anderson noted a track left be something with the exact same mass as an electron, but with a positive charge. It wasn't until 1955 that the first antiproton was detected. This discovery rested on the Ernest Lawrence's creation of the Bevatron which could accelerate two protons and collide them at energies of 6.2 MeV (Mega electron Volts). The detection of the antineutron came 5 years later in 1960. It wasn't until 1955 that the first antiproton was detected. This discovery rested on the Ernest Lawrence's creation of the Bevatron which could accelerate two protons and collide them at energies of 6.2 MeV (Mega electron Volts). The detection of the antineutron came 5 years later in 1960. The next step in testing the symmetry between matter and antimatter was resolved concurrently by CERN and the Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1965 with the creation of the antidueteron. A deuteron is a nucleus from by a proton and a neutron, the antidueteron was formed by combining an antiproton and an antineutron. Antimatter :: physics antimatter matter What is Antimatter? Albert Einstein came up with the famous equation, E=mc^2 And thus defined mass as highly concentrated energy. With sufficiently high concentrations of energy, that energy can form matter. However when this matter is created it is balanced out by the creation of antimatter. When matter and antimatter come into contact they annihilate each other and release large amounts of energy. A teaspoon of antimatter, reacting with matter, would run a car continuously for 100,000 years. Not all particles have equivalent or rather, separate antiparticles. The electron and proton, as well as quarks, have antiparticles, such as the positron and antiproton because they have a charge to reverse. The neutron has an antiparticle because, although it has no charge, it has a magnetic moment to which the antineutron is opposite. The photon, however has only mass and directional velocity, thus there is no antiphoton. Protons and neutrons also have a baryon number and their antiparticles have an equal but opposite baryon number. The History of Antimatter The existence of Antimatter was first predicted when Paul Dirac combined quantum theory and special relativity in one equation. This equation, however presented two 'solutions' to the electron. Dirac interpreted this to mean that not only was there an negatively charged electron, but there was a positively charged antielectron which had all the characteristics of an electron but an opposite charge. In 1932 Carl Anderson detected the first antielectron. While studying the tracks of cosmic particles Anderson noted a track left be something with the exact same mass as an electron, but with a positive charge. It wasn't until 1955 that the first antiproton was detected. This discovery rested on the Ernest Lawrence's creation of the Bevatron which could accelerate two protons and collide them at energies of 6.2 MeV (Mega electron Volts). The detection of the antineutron came 5 years later in 1960. It wasn't until 1955 that the first antiproton was detected. This discovery rested on the Ernest Lawrence's creation of the Bevatron which could accelerate two protons and collide them at energies of 6.2 MeV (Mega electron Volts). The detection of the antineutron came 5 years later in 1960. The next step in testing the symmetry between matter and antimatter was resolved concurrently by CERN and the Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1965 with the creation of the antidueteron. A deuteron is a nucleus from by a proton and a neutron, the antidueteron was formed by combining an antiproton and an antineutron.

Radical Reconstruction :: American America History

Radical Reconstruction Immediately following the Civil War the actions of Radical Republicans led to many changes in the South. Leading the way to Radical Reconstruction was Congressmen Charles Sumner and Thadeus Stevens. Their were many goals and motives the Radicals hoped to obtain. The first and main goal of the Radicals was to punish the South. The Radicals also hoped to retain Republican power by taking advantage of the South any way they could. Going along with taking advantage of the South, the Radicals wanted to protect industrial growth in the North and benefit economically from the situation. Another very important goal of the radicals was to aid the freed slaves. Equality for blacks was a hope the Radicals hoped to obtain, but it was also an effective way to retain Republican power. If the Radicals help Blacks, then Blacks will become Republican, thus increasing republican power. Using Legislature, the Radicals hoped to acquire all these things. The first victory for the Radicals was the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1866. One of the main obstacles the Radicals came across was the opposition by Andrew Jackson. Jackson immediately vetoed the Civil Rights Act as soon as he could. But the Radicals held most of the power in Congress and overrode his veto. Due to Johnson's resistance, Congress took it a step further and then passed the 14th Amendment. "All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."-14th Amendment. Both of these basically protected the rights of the blacks and hoped to bring about equality. These actions by Congress didn't sit to well with the South. The South particularly resented the actions of the newly established Freedmen's Bureau, which Congress established to feed, protect, and help educate the freed slaves. With the exception of Tennessee, all Southern states refused to follow the 14th Amendment. To counteract the South's actions, Congress passed the Reconstruction Act of 1867. This was a strong blow to the South. The act: put

Constructing Indentity On The Internet :: essays research papers

Today, we are living in computer age. Computers can be seen everywhere from kitchen to the living room, from small house to giant company. Computer technology has improved our lives. It will continue to affect our future, which will lead to an easier, less complicated lifestyle, with more job opportunities and their benefits. Computers help people in many different ways and also connect people on all over the world together through out the Internet.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The internet is one of the most useful things in the world today. For instance, we can stay in home and shop through Internet, and even send things like birthday cards by the web of Hallmark. Moreover, we can talk, chat, or send instant messages to the other people so we can learn more about the culture of different races, religions, and nationalities on the world. By Internet we can get as much information as we want. However, not all of the information that we get from the web page or other people is real or credential because people can put incorrect things on it. Therefore, we will take the risk of getting the fake or false information.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The technology of Internet also help us understanding other cultures. By logging on the internet, or chatting with the others we learn more about the different cultures from one place to anther. However, there are some dishonest people in chat room. People on the net are not always honest people. In the internet Indian Wars by Glen Martin, a white software consultant running the Native American seminar and chat room offered by AOL, Rapp, said â€Å"Basically, what we did was done in fun† (127) after he was discovered that he was dishonest, he wasn’t a native American. Rapp was a host of Native American seminar, discussing about Native American culture while he was not a member of any Indian group. All he was saying were fraud. As Marc Towersap, one of the first Indians to query about Rapp’s tribal credentials, said â€Å"There is a difference between adopting online identities ad perpetrating fraud† (Martin, 125) and he also said  "Rapp was promoting herself as a genuine native elder, and AOL was making money on the chat room because a lot of people logged on to it† (Martin, 125). AOL, a biggest Internet service on the world, didn’t care about what Rapp talking and discussing was true or not.

Happy people make people happy Essay

Like yawning, many recent studies have proved that laughter is contagious. Does this necessarily imply that when you smile to a complete stranger, he will smile back to you? Or on the other hand, when you frown at a complete stranger, he will frown at you as well? To find out the answer, we designed an experiment to test will happy people make people happy. Independent variables are the factors we manipulated. There are two independent variables in this test. The first one is our emotion conditions when having eye contact with the strangers, i.e. smile condition, frown condition and control condition. We define smile condition as smiling without teeth, frown condition as knitting our brows, and control condition as having a neutral facial expression. The second one is gender. To understand if gender matching matters, we will test the three conditions with strangers with the same gender and the opposite gender. Dependent variables are the variables being tested in the experiment. In this test, the dependent variables are the responses from the participants. We will rate their responded expression in 5 categories: clear frown, small frown, neutral, small smile, and clear smile. However, there are confounding factors that may affect the results of the experiment. Confounds are the extraneous variables in an experimental design that correlates with both the independent and dependent variables. Possible confound is the original facial expression of participants. Randomly choosing participants is a way to prevent confounds. To further eliminate confounds, we will choose complete strangers as participants and will not tell them about our test beforehand as they may confound the result by giving us what they believe we want to see. The last thing we do is to execute this test in a consistent way. We have strict control over our facial expression to make sure that our expressions will not defer a lot among participants. This is not a simple test as what we originally consider. The first obstacle we encounter is not having enough confidence to frown at people. It is not difficult to smile at strangers, but frowning at strangers is somewhat weird  that we hesitate for a long time before having confidence to complete the test. The second obstacle we encounter is there are possible biases in choosing participants. For example, we tend to choose participants with the same race or at similar ages with us. This may create possible confounding factors to the test. The last obstacle we encounter is finding suitable participants. Since we want to choose participants that are walking alone and not distracted by phones or music, surprisingly there are only a few can be found around campus. It takes us quite a lot of effort and time in finding suitable participants for the test. Before conducting the test, we state our hypothesis as when we smile to people, people will smile back to us; whereas when we frown at people, people will frown at us as well. We come out with this hypothesis because we believe ones emotion can influence others, that is when there are optimistic and happy people in a group, other members in the group will become happy more easily; whereas when people in a group are generally in a pessimistic and unhappy mood, other members in the group will be influenced and become unhappy as well.

Application of Managerial Economics in Decision Making

1. 0 Introduction7 1. 1 Definition of managerial economics7 1. 2 Choice and opportunity cost9 2. 0 Basic concerns of economics9 3. 0. 0 Theories of economics12 3. 1. 0 The theory of demand13 3. 1. 1 Tastes14 3. 1. 2 Number of buyers14 3. 1. 3 Income14 3. 1. 5 Expectations15 3. 2 The theory of supply16 3. 3 The theory of production16 3. 4 The theory of price( in government)17 3. 5 The theory of consumer behaviour17 3. 5. 1 Rational behaviour17 3. 5. 2 Preferences17 3. 5. 3 Budget constraint18 3. 5. 4 Prices18 4. 0 Managerial Economics and Economic Theories18 5. 0 General overview of the office of the Attorney General19 6. Decision-making centres under the Office of the Attorney General20 6. 1 Decisions in the Office of the Attorney General:21 6. 2 The role of Public Procurement Act, 2007 in decision-making and application economic theories23 6. 3 Other decisions25 6. 3. 1 Employment decisions25 6. 3. 2 Training decisions25 6. 4 Economic decisions of the Office of the Attorney General and budget constraint25 7. 0 Conclusion26 References28 TOPIC:APPLICATION OF MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS IN DECISION MAKING Introduction This paper attempt to discuss the application of managerial economics in decision-making in an organisation of my workplace. In discussing managerial economics a link has been made to some economic theories and their influence in decision making. The organisation selected is the Office of the Attorney General. The first part of the paper discusses; what managerial economics is and how it relates to economics; the concept of opportunity cost and its application; what are the concerns of economics and how they have been responded. The second part of this paper discusses theories of economics which the office of the Attorney General apply directly or indirectly in its decisions. The theories which have been looked at are: theory of demand, theory of supply, theory of consumer behaviour, production theory and price theory. It is in this part where a brief discussion on the relationship of economic theories and managerial economics is made, emphasis being made on the general decision-making process. The third and fourth part of this paper discuss the general overview of the office of the Attorney General, its statutory functions, various decisions made under the office and decision criterion. Also the role of Public Procurement Act, 2007 in procurement decisions is briefly looked into. The last part of the paper discusses the applicability of economic theories in decision making under the conditions of budget constraints and global financial and economic crisis. 1. 1 Definition of managerial economics Managerial economics has several definition as defined by different economists and authors. Thomas J. Webster defines managerial economics as the application of economic theory and quantitative methods (mathematics and statistics) to the managerial decision-making process. Simply stated managerial economics is applied microeconomics with special emphasis on those topics of greatest interest and importance to managers. McGuigan and Moyer define managerial economics as a branch of economics subject which deal with the application of microeconomics reasoning to real world decision-making problem faced by private, public, and non-profit institutions. Managerial economics extracts from microeconomic theory those concepts and techniques that enable a decision maker to select strategic direction, to allocate efficiently the resources of the organisation, and to respond effectively to tactical issues. The role of managerial economics in a globalised environment cannot be overemphasized. From the above definitions it is obvious that managerial economics stems from the main subject of economics. It therefore important to briefly look at what economics is about so as to appreciate the nature of managerial economics. According to Lipsey there are three economics concerns: i)The allocation of a society’s resources among alternatives uses and the distribution of the society’s output among individuals and groups; ii)The ways in which production and distribution change over time; and iii)The efficiencies and inefficiencies of economic systems. The definitions above are based on the fact that the resources of any society consists not only of the free gifts of nature, such as land, forests and minerals, but also of human capacity, both mental and physical, and of all man-made aids such as tools, machinery and buildings. It is sometimes useful to divide those resources into three main groups: (1) all those free gift of nature, such as land, forests, minerals,etc. commonly called natural resources and known to economists as LAND; (2) all human resources, mental and physical, both inherited and acquired, which economists call LABOUR; and (3) all those man-made aids to further production, such as tools, machinery, plant and equipment, including everything man-made which is not consumed for its own sake but is used in the process of making other goods and services which economists call CAPITAL. These resources are called FACTORS OF PRODUCTION because they are used in the process of production. Often a fourth factor, ENTERPRENEURS HIP is distinguished. The entrepreneur is the one who takes risk by introducing both new products and new ways of making products. He organises the other factors of production and directs them along new lines. The things that are produced by the factors of production are called COMMODITIES. Commodities may be divided into goods and services: goods are tangible, as are cars or shoes; services are intangible, as are haircuts or education. This distinction, however , should not be exaggerated: goods are valued because of the services they confer on their owners. A car, for example is valued because of the transportation that it provides-and possibly also for the flow of satisfaction the owner gets from displaying it as a status symbol. It is undisputable fact that every nation’s resources are insufficient to produce the quantities of goods and services that would be required to satisfy all of its citizens’ wants. Most of the problems of economics arise out of the use of scarce resources to satisfy unlimited human wants. This problem brings economists and other persons to the concept of choice and opportunity cost. 1. 2 Choice and opportunity cost Choices are necessary because resources are scarce. Because we cannot produce everything we would like to consume, there must exist some mechanism to decide what will be done and what left undone; what goods will be produced and what left unproduced; what quantity of each good will be produced; and whose wants will be satisfied and whose left unsatisfied. In most societies many different people and organizations either make or influence those choices. Individual consumers, business organisations, labour unions and government officials all exert some influence. If you choose to have more of one thing, then , where there is an effective choice, you must have less something else. Think of a man with a certain income who considers buying bread. We could say that the cost of this extra bread is so many shillings per loaf. A more revealing way of looking at the cost, however, is in terms of what other consumption he must forge in order to obtain his bread. Say that he decides to give up cinema attendance. If the price of a loaf is one fifth of the price of a cinema seat, then the cost of five more loaves of bread is one cinema attendance forgone or, put other way round, the cost of one cinema attendance is five loaves of bread foregone. The concept of opportunity cost emphasizes the problem of choice by measuring the cost of obtaining a quantity of one commodity in terms of the quantity of other commodities that have been obtained instead. 2. 0 Basic concerns of economics There are basic questions which economists in any society or organization need to ask and have answers as part of the process of resolving the problem of scarcity of resources and choices of satsfiable needs among the possible alternatives. The following are some of the basic questions economists should ask and attempt to answer: i) What commodities are being produced and in what quantities? This question arises directly out of scarcity of resources. It concerns the allocation of scarce resources among alternative uses or resource allocation. The question ‘what determines the allocation of resources in various societies? ’ and ‘what are the consequences of conscious attempts to change resource allocation? ’ have occupied e conomists since earliest days of the subject. In free-market economies, most decisions concerning the allocation of resources are made through the price system. The study of this system works is the main issue in the THEORY OF PRICE (ii) By what methods are these commodities produced? This question because there is always one technically possible way in which goods and services can be produced. Agricultural goods, for example, can be produced by farming a small quantity of land very intensively, using large quantities of fertilizer, labour and machinery, or by farming a large quantity of land extensively, using only small quantities of fertilizer, labour and machinery. Both methods can be used to produce the same quantity of some good; one method is frugal with land but uses large quantities of other resources. The same is true of manufactured goods; it is usually possible to produce the same output by several different techniques, ranging from ones using large quantity of labour and a few machines to one using a large quantity of highly automated machines and only a very small number of workers. Questions about why one method of production is used rather than another, and the consequences of these choices about production methods, are among the issues resolved in THEORY OF PRODUCTION (iii) how is society’s output of goods and services divided among its members? Why can some individuals and groups consume large share of capital of the natonal output while other individuals and groups consume only a small share? The superficial answer is because the former earn a large incomes while the later earn small incomes. But this only pushes the question one stage back. Why do some individuals and groups earn large incomes while others earn only small incomes? The basic question concerns the division of the total national product among individuals and groups. Economists wish to know why any particular division occurs in a free-market society and what forces, including government intervention, can cause it to change. All these questions are discussed in discussed in the theory of DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME, which is not dealt with in Managerial Economics. (iv) How efficient is the society’s production and distribution? These questions quite naturally arise out of questions i, ii and iii. Having asked what quantities of goods and services are produced, how they are produced and to whom they are distributed, it is natural to go on to ask whether the production and distribution decisions are efficient. The concept of efficiency is quite distinct from justice. The latter is a normative concept, and a just distribution of the national product would be one that our value judgements told us was a good or desirable distribution. (v) are country’s resources being fully utilized, or are some of them lying idle? As we have noted that the existing resources of any country are not sufficient to satisfy even the most pressing needs of all the individual consumers. It may seem strange, therefore, that we must ask this question at all. Surely if resources are so scarce that there are not enough of them to produce all of those commodities which are urgently, there can be no question of leaving idle any of the resources that are available. Yet one of the most disturbing characteristics of free-market economies is that such waste sometimes occurs. When this happens the resources are said to be in involuntarily unemployed. Unemployed workers would like to have jobs, the factories in which they could work are available, the managers and owners would like to be able to operate their factories, raw materials are available in abundance and the goods that could be produced by these resources are urgently required by individuals in the community. (vi) is the purchasing power of money and savings constant, or is being eroded because of inflation? The world’s economies have often experienced periods of prolonged and rapid changes in price levels. Over the long swing of history, price levels have sometimes risen and sometimes fallen. In recent decades, however, the course of prices has almost always been upward. (vii) is the economy’s capacity to produce goods and services growing from year to year or is it remaining static? The capacity to produce goods and services differ in different economies. In some economies the capacity grows rapidly but slow or stagnant in others. Stagnation and slow capacity growth is the main feature of economies of less developing countries. There are, of course, other questions that arise, but these seven questions are the mojor ones common to all types of market economies. 3. 0. 0 Theories of economics The world is a very complicated place. In understanding how markets operate, for example, the economists make a number of simplifying assumptions. Without these assumption, the ability to make predictions about the cause-and –effect relationship becomes unmanageable. The â€Å"law† of demand asserts that the price of a good or service and its quantity demanded are inversely related, ceteris paribus. This theory asserts that, other factors remaining constant, individuals will tend to purchase increasing amounts of a good or service as prices fall and decreasing amounts as the prices rise. Of, course, other things do not remain unchanged. Along with ,changes in the price of the good or service, disposable income, the prices of related commodities, tastes, and so on, may also change. It is difficult, if not impossible, to generalize consumer behaviour when multi[le demand determinants are simultaneously changing. It is good to remember that economics is a social, not a physical, science. Economics cannot conduct controlled, laboratory experiments, which makes economic theorizing all the more difficult. It also makes economists vulnerable to ridicule. One economic quip, for example, asserts that if all the economists in the world were laid to end, they would never reach a conclusion. This is, of course, an unfair criticism. In business, the objective is to reduce uncertainty. Economic theories and principles are statements about economic behaviour or the economy that enable prediction of the probable effects of certain actions. Good theories are those that do a good job of explaining and predicting. They are supported by facts concerning how individuals and institutions actually behave in producing, exchanging, and consuming goods and services. But these facts may change in time, so economists must continually check theories against the shifting economic environment. Despite the fact that decision making in the government is not solely based on economic theories it is worthy discussing some of the common theories and later see if they are relevant to the office of the Attorney General. The following are some of the theories which are used in managerial economics: 3. 1. 0 The theory of demand The demand function asserts that there is a measurable relationship between the price that a company charges for its products and the number of units that buyers are willing and able to purchase during a specified time period. Economists refer this behavioural relationship as the law of demand, which is sometimes called the first fundamental law of economics. The law of demand states that the quantity demanded of a good or service is inversely related to the selling price, ceteris paribus( all other determinants remaining unchanged). The demand schedule is the simplest form of the demand relationship. It is merely a list of prices and corresponding quantities of a commodity that would be demanded by some individuals at uniform prices. This can be illustrated as shown below: price of maize Tshs per tonQuantity demanded tons per month 100,000200 150,000250 200,000300 250,000350 300,000400 350,000450 400,000500 The concept of demand is based on the theory of consumer choice. Each consumer faces optimization problem, where the objective is to choose among the combination of goods that maximize his or her satisfaction or utility, subject to a constraint on the amounts of funds available(i. e. budget) to purchase these goods. Economists assume that price is the most influencing factor of quantity of any product purchased. But economists know that other factors can and affect purchases. These factors, called determinants of demand. The basic determinants of demand are (i) consumer tastes(preference), (ii) the number of consumers in the market, (iii) consumers’ incomes, (iv) the pr ice of related goods, and (v) consumer expectations about future prices and incomes. The determinants are expressed mathematically as follows: Qd=f(P, I, T, Ps, Pc, Pe, N†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. ) 3. 1. 1 Tastes A favourable change in consumer taste(preference) for a product, a change that makes the product more desirable means the more of it will be demanded at each price. Demand will increase ; the demand curve will slope rightward. An unfavarouble change in consumer preferences will decrease demand, shifting the demand curve to the left. New products may affect consumer tastes; for example the introduction of compact discs greatly decreased the demand for cassette tapes. Consumers’ concern over the health hazard of cholesterol and obesity have increased for broccoli, low-calorie beverages, eggs, and whole milk. Over the past several years, the demand for coffee drinks, bottled water, and sports utility vehicles has greatly increased, driven by a change in tastes. So, too for DVDs and digital cameras. 3. 1. 2 Number of buyers An increase in the number of buyers in the market increases demand. A decrease in the of buyers in a market decreases demand. For example improvement in communications have given financial markets international range and have thus increased the demand for stocks and bonds. Also, an increase in life expectancy can increase the demand medical care, retirement communities, and nursing homes. International trade agreements have reduced foreign trade barriers to most of the countries in the world, thus increasing the demand for those products. 3. 1. 3 Income How changes in income affect demand is a more complex matter. For most products, a rise in income causes increase in demand. Consumers typically buy more steaks, steaks, furniture, and electronic equipment as their incomes increase. Conversely, the demand for such products decline as their incomes fall. Products whose demand varies directly with money income are called superior goods or normal goods. Although most products are normal goods, there are some exceptions. As incomes increase beyond some point, the demand for used clothing, retread tires, and third-hand automobiles may decrease, because the higher incomes enable consumers to buy new versions of those products. Rising incomes may also decrease the demand for soy-enhanced hamburger. Similarly, rising incomes may cause the demand for charcoal grills to decline as wealthier consumers switch to gas grills. Goods whose demand varies inversely with money income are called inferior goods. 3. 1. 4 Price of related goods A change in the price of a related good or service may either increase or decrease the demand for a product, depending on whether the related good is a substitute or a compliment. A substitute good is one that can be used in place of another good. A complimentary good is that can be used together with another good. Substitutes: beef and chicken ars example of substitute goods or simply, substitutes. When the price of beef rises, consumers buy less beef, increasing the demand for chicken. Conversely, as the price of beef falls, consumers buy more beef, decreasing the demand for chicken. When two products are substitutes, the price of one and the demand for the other move in the same direction. Examples may include coca and Pepsi, and Kilimanjaro beer and Serengeti beer. Complement: Ccomplementary goods are goods that are used together and demanded together. If the price of gasoline falls and, as a result you drive your car more often, the extra driving increases your demand for motor oil. Thus, gasoline and motor oil are jointly demanded; they are compliments. So it is with ham and eggs, tuition and text books, movies and popcorn, cameras and films. When two products are compliments, the price of one good and demand for the other good move in opposite directions. Unrelated goods: The vast majority of goods that are not related to one another are called independent goods. Examples include butter and golf balls, potatoes and automobiles, and bananas and wrist watches. A change in the price of one has little or no effect on the demand for the other. 3. 1. 5 Expectations Changes in consumer expectations may shift demand. A newly formed expectation of higher future prices may cause consumers to buy now in order to beat the anticipated price rises, thus increasing current demand. Similarly, a change in expectations relating to future product availability may affect current demand. change in demand is to be distinguished with change in quantity demanded. A change in demand is a shift of the demand curve to the right (an increase in demand) or to the left (a decrease in demand). A change in quantity demanded is a movement from one point to another point, from one price quantity combination to another on a fixed demand schedule or demand curve. In summary, an increase in demand may be caused by the following factors: †¢A favourable change in consumer tastes An increase in the number of buyers †¢Rising incomes if the product is a normal good †¢Falling incomes if the product is an inferior good †¢An increase of the price of a substitute good †¢A decrease in the price of a complimentary good †¢A new consumer expectation that either prices or income will be higher in the future. 3. 2 The theory of supply While we have discussed some of the conditions under which consumers are willing , and able, to purchase quantities of a particular good or service, we also need to say something about the willingness of producers to produce those very same goods and services. This is discussed by the law of supply. The law asserts that quantity supplied of a good or service is directly related to the selling price, ceteris paribus. 3. 3 The theory of production The theory of production is centered around the concept of production function. A production function relates the maximum quantity of output that can be produced from given amounts of various inputs for a given technology. It is a technological relation between what is fed into the productive apparatus by way of inputs of factor services and what is turned out by way of product. The production function is mathematically expressed as: Q=q(L,K), Where Q is tons of output per day, L is labour days employed, and K is units of capital services( e. g. , machine days) used. In varying the combinations of the factor inputs the organisation has to consider three distinct types of decisions: decisions to be made over the short run, decisions to be made over the long run and decisions to be made over the very long run. The short run is defined as the period of time over which the inputs of some factors, called fixed factors, cannot be varied. The factor that is fixed in the short run is usually an element of capital( such as plant and equipment), but might be land, or the service of management, or even the supply of skilled labour. In the short run, production must be varied by changing the quantities used of those inputs that can be varied; these are called variable factors. It worth to take note here that the short run does not correspond to a fixed time period, it is a matter of fact. The long run is defined as the period long enough for the inputs of all factors of production to be varied, but not so long that basic technology of production changes. In our simple two factor example above, the firm varies q in the long run by varying L and K. The importance of the long run in the production theory is that it corresponds to the situation facing the firm when it planning to go into business, or to expand or contract the scale of its operations. The very long run is concerned with situations in which the technological possibilities open to the firm are subject to change, leading to new and improved products and new methods of production. 3. 4 The theory of price( in government) The decision-taking units in economic theory are households for demand, firms for supply, and central authorities for government regulation and control. Given the resources at their command, each household is assumed to act consistently to maximize its satisfaction, and each firm is assumed to act consistently to maximise its profits. 3. 5 The theory of consumer behaviour In addition to explaining the law of demand, the idea of diminishing marginal utility explains how consumers allocate their money incomes among the many goods and services available for purchase. The typical consumers’ situation has the following dimensions: 3. 5. 1 Rational behaviour The consumer is a rational person, who tries to use his or her money income to derive the greatest amount of satisfaction, or utility, from it. Consumers want to get â€Å"the most of their money† or, technically, to maximize their total utility. They engage in a rational behaviour. 3. 5. 2 Preferences Each consumer has clear-cut preferences for certain of the goods and services thathat are available in the market. It is assumed that buyers as well have a good idea of how much marginal utility they will get from successful units of the various products they might purchase. 3. 5. 3 Budget constraint At any point in time the consumer has a fixed, limited amount of money income. Since each consumer supplies a finite amount of human and property resources to society, he or she earns only limited income. Thus, every consumer faces what economists call a budget constraint(budget limitation), even those who earn millions of dollars a year. f course budget constraint are more severe to consumers with average incomes than for those with extraordinarily high incomes. 3. 5. 4 Prices Goods are scarce relative to the demand for them, so every good carries a price tag. We assume that price tags are not affected by the amounts of specific goods each person buys. The consumer cannot buy everything wanted. So, the consumer must compromise; he must choose the most satisfying mix of goods and services. Different individuals will choose different mixes. . 0 Managerial Economics and Economic Theories Most decisions made by managers usually involve questions of resource allocation within the organisation in both the short and the long run. In the short run, a manager may be interested in estimating demand and cost relationship to make decisions about the price to charge for a product and the quantity of output to produce. The areas of microeconomics dealing with demand theory of cost and production are obvious useful in making decision on such matters. Macroeconomic theory also enters into decision making when a manager attempt to forecast future demand based on forces influencing the overall economy. In the long run, decisions must be made about expanding or contracting production and distribution facilities, developing and marketing new products, and possibly acquiring other firms. Basically, these decisions require the organisation to make capital expenditure; that is, expenditure made in the current period that are expected to yield returns in future periods. Economists have developed a theory of capital budgeting that can be used in deciding whether to undertake specific capital expenditures. It is therefore not realistic to think that a firm will make decisions based on one theory or a combination of two. Application of economic theories is an issue which depends on each case. There may be cases which are not complex, these may be simple decisions to be made by organisation which are not faced with constraints. 4. 1 General decision-making Process The ability to make good decisions is the key to successful managerial performance. All decision making shares several common elements. First, the decision maker must establish or identify the objectives of the organization. The failure to identify organizational objectives correctly can result in the complete rejection of an otherwise well-conceived and well implemented plan. Generally, economic decision-making process involves the following steps: 1. Establish and/or identify Objectives 2. Define the problem 3. Identify possible alternative solutions 4. Evaluate alternatives and select the best alternative . Implement and monitor the decision. 5. 0 General overview of the office of the Attorney General Article 59(1) of the Constitution of the united Republic of Tanzania establishes the office of the Attorney General. It states â€Å" there shall be an Attorney General for the Government of the United Republic, who in subsequent articles of this constitution shall be referred to as the â€Å"Attorney-General† who shall be appointed by the president. Thus, t he office of the Attorney General is constitutionally established. The constitution also prescribe the main role and function of the Attorney General in article 59(3). It provides â€Å" the Attorney General shall be the adviser of the Government of the United Republic on legal matters and for that purpose he shall be responsible for advising the Government on all legal matters, and to discharge any other functions pertaining to or connected with law which are referred or assigned to him by the president and also to discharge such other duties or functions which shall be entrusted to him by this constitution or by any law† 5. Statutory functions of The Attorney General As the powers and functions of the Attorney General are derived from the constitution it is undisputed fact that decision making in this office is guided by law. In accordance with the Attorney General(Discharge of duties and functions) Act prescribe the following as functions of the Attorney General: (a)To advise the Government on legal matters; b)To institute and prosecute cr iminal cases in courts of law and defend criminal appeals, revisions and applications on behalf of the United Republic; (c)To litigate civil cases including constitutional and human rights matters on behalf of the Government; (d)To draft and vet legislative instruments, translate and revise legislation; (e)To research, analyse and advice the Government on constitutional and human rights matters; (f)To represent the Government in civil and criminal matters; (g)To represent the government in International Arbitration, mediation and negotiations of contacts, Government Loans and international agreements. . 0 Decision-making centres under the Office of the Attorney General From the organisation structure of the ministry of justice and constitutional affairs(attached as appendix) the following are main departments or directorates: Functional departments: †¢Public Prosecutions Division †¢Civil and International Law Division †¢Legislative Division †¢Constitutional Affai rs and Human Rights Division Supporting departments: †¢Administrative and Personnel Division †¢Policy, planning and Information Services Division 6. 1 Decisions in the Office of the Attorney General: (a)Statutory decisions In making statutory decisions the decision makers are guided by law as to which option to take and the procedure of making the decision. For instance, the decision to prosecute a criminal is both legal and economical but much consideration is given to legal. The criminals have to be prosecuted though the costs associated with prosecution may be very high. In these decisions the decision makers are less flexible. Thus, economic theories are given consideration at the level when the Government as a whole makes a decision of allocating its resources in accordance to preference of the services to offer to the citizens. b)Economic decisions Most of the economic decisions of the Attorney General’s Office are based on the budget which is approved by the parliament. Generally the budget is of two types of expenditures, development expenditure and recurrent expenditure. Development expenditure In the development expenditure each department proposes the development activities which it i ntends to implement in the next financial year. Each department is categorised as a vote and identified by vote number. Some department have divisions which are mandated to control their funds, these are categorised as sub-votes. As between various development requirements the department must choose which projects require immediate implementation, this is because each department has more demands of these expenditures, however, the funds allocated by the parliament in each year are meagre. The decisions for development expenditure are made by top management of each department, each department being led by its core functions. Some of the expenditures which are development include rehabilitation of offices, purchase of office furniture, computers, motor vehicles, etc. The foresaid expenditures are those financed solely by the government. There are expenditure which are financed by donors, these are also divided in two categories: basket funding and project funding. Basket funding are donations by donor countries which are to the general budget of the government. Each donor country individually or in groups contribute to the budget without specifying the project or activities which they wish to assist. The decision as how to spend the money is left to the government through normal budget process. Project funding is done by donor countries(development partners) whether individually or in groups who are interested to assist in specific area which they are interested. There are two main development projects in the ministry of constitutional affairs and justice, these are: the Legal Sector Reform Programme(LSRP) and the Tackling of Corruption Programme(TCP). In these programmes the decisions of what activities to be undertaken in each is a prior bargaining between the Government of the United Republic and the development partners. Usually the agreement in the form of memorandum of understanding(MOU) which stipulates the scope and focus of the project and the role of each party. The AG’s Office being one of the beneficiary of these project is responsible for implementation and monitoring of the progress. In the course of implementation and monitoring economic theories have to be applied. These theories include demand and supply and consumer behaviour. Generally development expenditure are determined by the government at top level and implemented by the departments. There is very little influence of the management of departments in this type of expenditure. hus, at this level application of economic theories is so indirect as most of the decision are made top-bottom. Recurrent expenditure The budget process of the government on recurrent expenditure does not differ much from development expenditure but there is a slight variation. While the great part of development budget is decided by the top level of t he government recurrent expenditure is in the ambit of management of each department. From the start to the implementation of the budget there are various decisions which are frequently made by departments. However, the decision made must confine to other liming factors. When the budget of the ministry has been approved by the parliament each department has to prepare its action plan which is sent to the ministry of finance. The action plan enables the ministry of finance to determine amounts of money which should be issued by way of exchequer issues to each department. An action plan is a timeframe based plan for implanting the budget(see appendix). In the action plan management of each department has to make an decisions on the following issues: (a)Activities which are to be implemented in each quarter, the department may choose an activity to be implemented in the 1st, 2nd , 3rd or 4th quarter. Some of the activities may be spread evenly in all the 4 quarters. The decision as to which quarter an activity should be carried is very critical due to the following reasons: †¢Prices of goods and services may rise and affect the budget adversely †¢Funds may not be available at the time when the goods or services are needed †¢Unexpected event or state may occur. (b)Activities which are not to be implemented as caused by changes in the approved budget (c)Activities which may require application for approval of reallocation and timing of the same. 6. The role of Public Procurement Act, 2007 in decision-making and application economic theories Enactment of the Public Procurement Act, 2007 has made the application of the theories of demand and supply and theory of consumer behaviour to be feasible. The law makes it a mandatory requirement to follow certain procedures when purchasing goods and services for public offices. Section 28(1) requires each ministry, independent department of Government, Region, District and others to establish a tender board for procurement of goods, services and works. Paragraph 4(1) of Government Notice No. 7 states the rationale of the law asâ€Å" the public procurement policies are based on the need to make the best possible use of public funds, whilst conducting all procurement with honesty and fairness†. Paragraph 4(2)(a) goes further to state that all public officers and members of the public and members of the tender boards who are undertaking or approving procurement shall be guided the following basic considerations of the public procurement policy:- †¢The need for economy and efficiency in the use of public funds and in the implementation of projects including the provision of related goods and services. The best interests of a public authority, in giving all eligible suppliers, contractors, and service providers equal opportunities to compete in providing goods or executing works or providing servi ces. †¢The importance of integrity, accountability, fairness and transparency in the procurement process. To achieve the above objectives the law requires that tenders are awarded by way of competitive tendering in which suppliers, contractors or consultants are invited by the procuring entity to compete with each other in submitting priced tenders for goods, works or services. By providing these legal requirements the enhances the application of economic theories in public procurement. Just as demand theory states that other factors remaining constant a consumer will increase quantity of goods demanded when its price is lower, Public procurement Act requires among other things to select the lowest bidder( assuming other things are equal to all bidders, for instance quality and time of supply) The process of budgeting in the Government is both top-down and bottom-top depending on the stage of the budget. The process starts by the Ministry of Finance(MoF) issuing budget guidelines and instruction which are to be followed by all Ministries and departments when preparing the budget. Included in the guidelines are government priorities in the financial year in reference. Budget for the AG’s Office is proposed for both the development and recurrent expenditure is done in departments on the following sequences: (i)Budget guidelines, budget ceiling and instructions issued by the Ministry of Finance (ii)Top Management of the ministry discusses the guidelines and priorities to synchronise with the ministry’s priorities. iii)The top management of AG’s Office make budget strategies and sets the way forward. (iv)Instructions to the Heads of departments are issued for implementation of the guidelines, overall government priorities and ministerial priorities. (v)Head of departments implements the above by proposing their expenditures in the year under reference. 6. 3 Other dec isions 6. 3. 1 Employment decisions Generally all matters related to staff requirements of any government office are dealt with the President’s office Public Service office. When the Attorney General’s Office is need of staff of a certain category, it will have to report the needs to this office. Practice has shown that the Public Service Office will scrutinise the needs and if satisfied will grant a permission to the department to employ subject to the given conditions. Thus, the room to make decision is not based on the application of the production theory, theory of demand but on policies of the government on employment. For instance, salaries payable are not based on the demand and supply for labour but on what are the government scales of salaries. 6. 3. 2 Training decisions Training of staff in the office of Attorney General is based on the training plan. The training plan shows the training needs of all employees and proposed period of training. It is from this plan that each department has to ensure that it includes in its budget funds for training staff. Practice has proved that the plan is hardly implemented due to the fact that funds allocated to training are always inadequate. This poses a problem as to what criterion will be used to select employees to attend training. There is no set criterion for this aspect and remains to be a challenge. 6. 4 Economic decisions of the Office of the Attorney General and budget constraint When budget of the ministry of constitutional affairs is approved by the parliament implementation does not start until the ministry of finance disburses funds by way of exchequer issues. It from exchequer issues that the ministry and its departments can start spending. Release of funds by the Ministry of Finance is made monthly and the amount depends on tax collections in the preceding month. It is therefore apparent that the funds availed to each ministry and department is not necessarily equivalent to the approved budget, in most of the times is less than the budget(see appendix). This compels the ministry or the department to revisit its decisions which were based on approved budget. In this regard some of the decisions are not based economic theories, but on other factors, e. g. , political and social factors. Global financial crisis and economic crisis has contributed to the above mentioned problem by causing a depression in the business sector which has a negative impact on tax revenue. Application of economic theories to make decisions is done both by the top government management and also departmental management. At the government levels directives are issued to cut down expenditures which are deemed not necessary. For instance in the year 2007, the Prime minister issued a directive which restricted government spending on workshops, seminars and unnecessary conferences. In 2008, the government restricted purchase of expensive vehicles. All these measures were aimed at ensuring that the scarce resources of the government are directed towards provision of essential services. This is linked to the theory of consumer behavior and the government as a consumer acts rationally and wisely in spending taxpayers money. Likewise, all departments after having been allocated with monthly funds less than their budgets are expected to act rationally by spending money in areas where they will maximize the value for money. They are automatically required to revisit their needs in the budget and rescale the preferences. 7. 0 Conclusion Managerial economics as a science is used as a road-map to show and aid decision makers in arriving at optimal decisions given various constraints. In its application managerial economics uses microeconomics principles and economics theories. Managerial economics is mostly applicable to risk analysis, production analysis, pricing analysis, and capital budgeting. However, practical life tells that almost all businesses apply managerial economics in one way or another. Managerial economics is used and applied in both profit-making and non- profit making organisations. While the objective of profit making entities is to maximize profit the objective of non-profit making entities is to achieve and maximise the objectives for their establishment. The government as an institution is also faced with economical and social dilemma some of which need application of managerial economics. Like any other institution, the government is faced with the problem of limited resources against unlimited wants. The resources in the orm of capital, Land, Labour, and Management are not enough to satisfy an endless list of their uses. In addition to this problem the world is operating in uncertainty, if decisions are made without accommodating the risk component adverse results are likely to happen. Examples of uncertainties which have impacted government resources in Tanzania include electric power crisis which compelled the government to incur cost to buy fuel for IPTL (Independent Power Tanzania Ltd) power plant. The crisis was erroneously not anticipated and therefore not pre-planned. This has impacted negatively government budget as it had to forgo some of the economic and social activities which were envisaged to be carried in the financial year 2009/2010. Explosion of bombs at Mbagala military camp caused loss of lives and properties of citizens and caused injuries and mental shock of thousands of Dar-es-salaam residents. The government made compensation for damaged property. All these events were likely to be foreseen and the risks minimised or eliminated. Elimination or minimization of these risks entails using techniques under managerial economics(risk analysis). Together with uncertainties which the government can analyse using managerial economics as above there are uncertainties which are beyond the control of the government. For instance, the global financial crisis (GFC) started in the United States of America in the second half of 2007. The crisis was prompted by increase defaults in subprime mortgages. The crisis spread all over the world and has much impacted developing countries than others. Impacts include loss of employment due to closure of businesses, loss of revenue and decline in new investments. Despite the importance and use of economic theories in decision-making process, the government sometimes use non economic factors to make decisions. This is so because according to the nature of some of the activities of the government and laws and rules governing the same. For instance, a decision to build a school in a certain area does not depend on expected revenue in the form of fees but the factor will be provision of education services. Thus, in some of the problems economic theories do not apply. The theory which assumes that the objective of the firm is to maximise profit does not apply to government because its existence does not depend on profit but on welfare of the people. Decisions of the office of the Attorney General apart from applying managerial economics, have to be in line with government policies and in some aspects with the law governing such decisions. It therefore important for decision makers in the governments and its department to make sure that not only policies and laws are considered in making decisions, they should make sure managerial economics together with applicable economic theories are taken on board. References McMconnell, C. R and Brue, S. L,(2005) Economics: Principles, Problems, and Policies (16th edn). McGraw-Hill Companies, inc. , New York. McGuigan, J. R. , Moyer, R. C, etal (2005), Managerial Economics: Application, Strategy and Tactics. (10th edn), United States of America. Lipsey, R. G, An Introduction to Positive Economics. (6th edn), Butler & Tanner Ltd, London Jehovaness, A. ,(2009),† The Impact of Global Financial Crisis on Developing Countries†. A paper presented in the seminar on International Accounting Standards and Global Financial Crisis, 28th March, Dar es Salaam. Ngowi, H. P. (20100. â€Å"The current Global Financial and Economic Crisis and its impact on Africa†. A paper for the Medals for Research on Development at the Eleventh Annual Global Development Conference, Prague, Czech Republic. The Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania The Public Procurement Act, 2007